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Creek War
Depiction of William Weatherford surrendering to Andrew Jackson after the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. Jackson was so impressed with Weatherford's boldness that he let him go.
Date 1813–1814 Location American South Result Victory for U.S. and Lower Creeks
Belligerents
United States Lower Creeks Cherokees	"Red Sticks"
Commanders and leaders
Andrew Jackson John Coffee William McIntosh	William Weatherford Menawa Peter McQueen
Strength
7,000	4,000

The Creek War (1813-1814), also known as the Red Stick War and the Creek Civil War, began as a civil war within the Creek (Muscogee) nation. It is sometimes considered to be part of War of 1812.

Background

Inspired by the fiery eloquence of Tecumseh and their own prophets, Creeks known as Red Sticks sought aggressively to return their society to a traditional way of life. Creek leaders such as William Weatherford (Red Eagle), Peter McQueen, and Menawa, who had been allies of the British during the War of 1812, violently clashed with other chiefs of the Creek Nation over white encroachment on Creek lands and the "civilizing" programs administered by U.S. Indian Agent Benjamin Hawkins. Before the Civil War began, the Red Sticks were able to keep their activities secret from the old Chiefs.

In February 1813, a small party of Red Sticks led by Little Warrior, who were returning from Detroit, massacred two families of settlers along the Ohio. Hawkins demanded that the Creek turn over Little warrior and his six companions. This led to a general uprising when the old Chiefs decided to execute the murderers themselves.

One of the first clashes between Red Sticks and the settlers took place when a group of settlers ambushed a party of Red Sticks who were returning from Florida, where they had received some munitions from the Spanish Governor. The Red Sticks considered this attack, which became known as the Battle of Burnt Corn, to be a declaration of war, and, in retaliation, Peter McQueen led an attack on Fort Mims, near Mobile on August 30, 1813 which left 400 to 500 dead and spread panic throughout the American southwestern frontier.

Opposing forces

After Burnt Corn, Secretary John Armstrong notified General Thomas Pinckney, Commander of the 6th Military District that the United States was prepared to take action against Creek. Further, if Spain were found to be supporting the creek, a strike against Pensacola would be justified. Georgia began its preparations by establishing a line of Forts along the Chattahoochee River—the modern border between Alabama and Georgia. This action would protect the frontier and allow time to prepare an offensive.

Brigadier General Ferdinand Clairborne, a Militia Commander in the Mississippi Territory, recognized the weakness of his sector on the western border of the Creek territory, and advocated a series of preemptive strikes. However, Major General Thomas Flourney, Commander of 7th Military District, continually refused these request and reminded Clairborne that the American strategy in that sector was defensive. Meanwhile, settlers in that region sought refuge in blockhouses. better describe 'that region'

In response to the massacre at Fort Mims, the Tennessee legislature authorized Governor William (Willie) Blount to raise 5,000 militia for a three-month tour of duty. Blount called out a force of 2,500 West Tennessee men under Andrew Jackson to "repel an approaching invasion...and to afford aid and relief to...Mississippi Territory".¹ He also summoned a force of 2,500 from East Tennessee under Major General John Cocke. Jackson and Cocke were not ready to move until early October.

In addition to the actios of Tennessee, Georgia and Mississippi, Benjamin Hawkins organized the friendly Creeks under Major William McIntosh to aid the Georgia and Tennessee militias during their forays against the Red Sticks.

By count of towns, the Upper Creek constituted about two thirds of the Creek Nation. Their towns were along the Coosa and Alabama (Tallaposa) rivers in the heart of Alabama. They were settled along the Chattahoochee River. Many Creek tried to remain friendly to the United States; but, after Fort Mims, few Americans in the southeast made any distinction between friendly and unfriendly Creek.

The Red Stick force consisted of at most 4,000 warriors, possessing perhaps 1,000 guns They had never been in a serious war, even with their neighbors. Early in the war, General Cook observed that arrows "form a very principal part of the enemy's arms for warfare, every man having a bow with a bundle of arrows, which is used after the first fire with the gun until a leisure time for loading offers".²

The Holy Ground (Hickory Ground), located at the junction of the Alabama and Coosa rivers, was the heart of the Red Stick Confederation. It was about 150 miles from the nearest supply point available to any of the three armies. The easiest attack route was from Georgia through the line of forts on the frontier and then along a good road that lead to the Upper Creek towns near the Holy Ground. Another route was north from Mobile along the Alabama river. The most difficult, Jackson's route of advance, was south from Tennessee through a mountainess and pathless terrain.

The war

Outnumbered and poorly armed, the Red Sticks put up a desperate fight from their wilderness strongholds but valor and the magic of their prophets failed to halt the converging armies. However, because their was no real direction from Washington or coordination between the three armies, the war did not end as quickly as it could have. By the end of 1813, 7,000 men from three armies had entered Creek territory and killed 800 warriors. However, they had not destroyed the towns which were the center of the Red Sticks power.

Tennesee militia

Although Jackson's mission was to defeat the Creek, his larger objective was to move on Pensacola. Jackson's plan was to move south, build roads, destroy Upper Creek towns and then later proceed to Mobile to stage an attack on Pensacola. He had two problems, logistics and short enlistments. When Jackson began his advance, the Tennessee River was low making it difficult to move supplies and there was little forage for his horses.

Jackson departed Fayetteville Tennessee on October 7 1813. He joined his calvary in Huntsville and crossed the Tennessee, establishing Fort Deposit. He then marched to the Coosa and built his advanced base at Fort Struther. Jackson's first successful actions, the battles of Tallushatchee and Talladega, occurred in November.

However, after Talladega, Jackson was plagued by supply shortages and discipline problems arising from his men's short term enlistments. Cocke, with 2,500 East Tennessee Militia, took the field on October 12. His route of march was from Knoxville to Chattanooga and then along the Coosa toward Fort Strother. Because of jealousy between the East and West Tennessee militia, Cocke was in no hurry to join Jackson, particularly after he angered Jackson by mistakenly attacking a friendly village on November 17. When he finally reached Fort Strother on December 12, the East Tennessee men only had 10 days remaining on their enlistments. Jackson had no choice but to dismiss them. General Coffee, who had returned to Tennessee for remounts, wrote Jackson that the cavalry had deserted. By the end of 1813 Jackson was down to a single regiment whose enlistments were due to expire in mid January.

Although, Governor Blount had ordered a new levee of 2,500 troops, Jackson would not be up to full strength until the end of February. When a draft of 900 raw recruits arrived unexpectedly on 14 January, Jackson was down to a cadre of 103 and Coffee who had been "abandoned by his men".³

Since new men had sixty day enlistment contracts, Jackson decided to get the most out of his untried force. He departed Fort Struther on the seventeenth and marched toward the village of Emuckfaw to cooperate with the Georgia Militia. However, this was a risky decision. It was a long march through difficult terrain against a numerically superior force, the men were inexperienced and subordinate, and a defeat would have prolonged the war. After two indecisive battles at Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek, Jackson returned to Fort Struther and did not resume the offensive until mid March.

The arrival of the 39th United States Infantry on February 6 1814 provided Jackson a disciplined core for his force which ultimately grew to about 5,000 men. After Governor Blount ordered the second draft of Tennessee militia, Cocke, with a force of 2,000 six-month men, once again marched from Knoxville to Fort Strother. Cocke's men mutinied when they learned that Jackson's men only had three month enlistments. Cocke tried to pacify his men, but Jackson misunderstood the situation and ordered Cocke's arrest as an instigator. The East Tennessee militia reported to Fort Strother without further comment on their term of service. Cocke was later cleared.

Jackson spent the next month building roads and training his force. In mid March, he moved against the Red Stick force concentrated on the Tallaposa at Horseshoe Bend. He first moved south along the Coosa about half the distance to the Creek position and established a new outpost at Fort Williams. Leaving another garrison, he then moved on Horseshoe Bend with a force of about 3000 effectives augmented by 600 Cherokee and Lower Creek allies. The battle, which occurred on March 27, was a decisive victory for Jackson effectively ending the Red Stick resistance.

Georgia militia

The state of Georgia had a militia of perhaps 30,000. While the 6th Military District, consisting of both Carolinas as well as Georgia, had perhaps as many as 2,000 regulars. In principle, General Pinckney, the district commander, could have mounted an offensive that would have ended the Creek war in 1813. However, efforts in this sector were neither as prompt nor as effective as they could have been.

In late November General Floyd, with a force of 950 militia and 300-400 friendly Creek, crossed the Chattahoochee and moved toward the Holy Ground. On November 29 he attacked the village of Auttose and drove the Creek from a strong position. After the battle, General Floyd, who was severely wounded, withdrew to the Chattahoochee. Floyd's losses were 11 killed and 54 wounded. Floyd estimated that 200 Creek were killed.

In mid January Floyd departed Fort Mitchell with a force of 1,300 militia and 400 friendly Creek for the village of Tuckaubatchee to await a link-up Jackson. On January 29, 7 days after Emuckfaw, the Creek attacked his fortified camp on the Calibee Creek. Although the Georgian's repulsed the attack, Floyd and his militia considered this battle a defeat and retreated to Fort Mitchell, abandoning the line of fortified positions that they had created during their advance. Casualty figures vary for Floyd's force—17 to 22 killed, 132 to 147 wounded. Floyd estimated Red Stick casualties as 37 killed. This was Georgia's last offensive operation of the war. <--(Adams 793-794, Mahon 242, the second casulty estimates are Mahon's)-->

Mississippi militia

In October General Flourney organized a force of about 1,000—consisting of the 3rd United States Infantry, militia, volunteers, and Choctaw Indians—at Ft. Stoddert. General Clairborne, ordered to lay waste Creek property near junction of Alabama and Tombigbee, advanced from Fort St. Stephen. He achieved some destruction but with no military engagement.

Continuing to a point about 85 miles north of Fort Stoddert, Clairborne established Fort Clairborne. On December 23 he encountered a small force at the Holy Ground and burned 260 houses. William Weatherford was nearly captured during this engagement, but was able to escape. Casualties for the Mississipian's were 1 killed and 6 wounded. They killed 30 Creek warriors. Because of supply shortages, Clairborne withdrew to Fort St. Stephens

Results of the war

On August 9, 1814 the Creeks were forced to sign the Treaty of Fort Jackson, which ceded 23 million acres (93,000 km²), half of Alabama and part of southern Georgia, to the United States government. With the Red Stick menace subdued, Andrew Jackson was able to focus on the Gulf coast region. On his own initiative, he invaded Spanish Florida and drove a British force out of Pensacola. <Mahon 350> He next defeated the British at the Battle of New Orleans on January 8, 1815. In 1818 Jackson again invaded Florida, where some of the Red Stick leaders had fled, an event known as the First Seminole War. As a result of these victories, Jackson became a national figure and eventually rose to become the seventh President of the United States in 1829.

See also

• George Mayfield, interpreter and spy for Andrew Jackson, later honored by the Creeks for his integrity during treaty negotiations

Notes

• ^Note 1 : Remini, p. 72
• ^Note 2 : Adams, p. 785
• ^Note 3 : Adams, p. 791

References

• "The Creek War 1813-1814" from the Horseshoe Bend National Military Park website.
• Henry Adams, History of the United States of America During the Administrations of James Madison (Library Classics of the United State, Inc. 1986), ISBN 0940450356
• John K. Mahon, The War of 1812, (University of Florida Press 1972) ISBN 0813003180
• Robert V. Remini, The Life of Andrew Jackson (Harper and Rowe, Publishers 1988), ISBN 0060159049

External link

• A map of Creek War Battle Sites from the PCL Map Collection at the University of Texas at Austin.