User:Stevey7788/TB2

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Below are lists of ethnic groups in China by linguistic classification. Ethnicities not on the official PRC list of 56 ethnic groups are italicized. Respective Pinyin transliterations and simplified Chinese characters are also given.

Proto-Tibeto-Burman[edit]

Verbs[edit]

Proto-Tibeto-Burman verbs would have resembled those of Written Tibetan.[dubious – discuss] The verb paradigms below are from Written Tibetan. The affixes given in the tables below have also been reconstructed in Proto-Tibeto-Burman.

Written Tibetan intransitive verbs are relatively simple and have two forms (Matisoff 2003:131).

Present Past
ḥ- -s

However, Written Tibetan transitive verbs are much more complicated. They can be split into four different classes, with the verb roots taking on various prefixes, circumfixes, and suffixes (Matisoff 2003:131).

Written Tibetan
Transitive Verb Paradigms
Class Present Past Future Imperative
I h- b- -s b- -s
II ḥ- b- -s g- -s
III g- b- -s b- -s
IV g- b- -s g- -s

Sound changes[edit]

Sino-Tibetan languages go through a series of four stages in which final stops and nasals gradually decay (Matisoff 2003:238-239).

  1. The six final stops and nasals, *-p, *-t, *-k, *-m, *-n, *-ŋ, are all intact. Written Tibetan, Lepcha, Kanauri, Garo, and Cantonese are currently in this stage.
  2. One or more final consonants have been reduced or dropped. In Jingpho and Nung, the velars (*-k) are replaced by glottal stops (-ʔ), while in other languages they are completely dropped. In Mandarin Chinese, all final stops are dropped, and *-m has been merged with *-n and *-ŋ.
  3. All finals stops become glottal stops or constrictions (such as creaky voices), and final nasals may be replaced by nasality in the preceding consonant. Languages currently in this stage include modern Burmese and Lahu.
  4. There are no glottal or nasal traces of former final consonants left in the syllables.

For example, the Proto-Tibeto-Burman word *myak (a simple monosyllable, meaning "eye," that actually occurs in Written Burmese) evolved into the disyllable *sya-myak. From *sya-myak, it could then turn into *səmyak (sesquisyllable) or *smyak (complex monosyllable). Either of these two forms could then be simplified to another monosyllable, where the cycle would be able to start again.

Language Change[edit]

4 principles of language change:

  1. Directionality of Change
  2. Commonality of Features
  3. Economy of Change
  4. Symmetry of System

Sino-Tibetan[edit]

Tai-Kadai[edit]

(Possibly the ancient Bǎiyuè 百越)

Altaic[edit]

Others[edit]

Hmong-Mien
(Possibly the ancient Nánmán 南蛮)

Austro-Asiatic

Austronesian

Indo-European

Mixed

  • Wutun, Wǔtún, 五屯 (Mongolian-Tibetan mixed language)
  • Macanese, Tǔshēngpú, 土生葡 (Portuguese creole)

Register splits[edit]

  • upper, odd, yin, voiceless
  • lower, even, yang, voiced

Tree[edit]

The following is a phylogenetic tree of language families and their corresponding SNP markers, or haplogroups, sourced mainly from Edmondson as well as Shi, et al.[1][2]

"Proto-Asiatic" (O-M175) 
 Northern Asiatic (O3-M122) 
 Sino-Tibetan (O3a5-M134) 
 Hmong-Mien (O3a3b-M7) 

 Hmong (Miao) 

 She[3] 

 Mien (Yao) 

 Austric 

Sino-Austronesian[edit]

French linguist and Sinologist Laurent Sagart groups the Austronesian languages in a recursive-like fashion. Sagart considers the Austronesian languages to be related to the Sino-Tibetan languages, and also groups the Tai-Kadai languages as more closely related to the Malayo-Polynesian languages.[5]

  • Sino-Austronesian (Sino-Tibetan-Austronesian)
    • Tibeto-Burman ("Sino-Tibetan")
    • Austronesian
      • Luilang, Pazeh, Saisiat
      • Pituish
        • Atayalic (Thao, Favorlang, Taokas, Papora, Hoanya)
        • Enemish
          • Siraya
          • Walu-Siwaish
            • Tsouic (Paiwan, Rukai, Puyuma, Amis, Bunun)
            • Muish
              • Northeastern Formosan (Kavalan, etc.)
              • Daic or Kra-Dai (Tai-Kadai)
              • Malayo-Polynesian

Austro-Tai[edit]

While the Austronesian languages are generally disyllabic and atonal, the Tai-Kadai languages are usually monosyllabic and always tonal. This is because the structure of Tai-Kadai languages has been heavily influenced by Chinese and possibly Tibeto-Burman and Hmong-Mien languages due to prolonged contacts and interactions.

Even though the structures of Austronesian and Thai languages have diverged very much, many basic vocabulary words have not changed much. Usually, the Tai-Kadai word would have only the last syllable of its proto-form, although the Kra and Kam-Sui languages often still have disyllabic basic vocabulary words.

The table below lists Thai words with their respective Austronesian cognates (given by Tagalog, Ilocano language, and Malay, all of which are major lingua francas in Southeast Asia today). The words below can also found in Swadesh lists.

English Thai
ภาษาไทย 		Thai
transliteration 		Austronesian
language
I กู kuu ko (Tagalog)
you มึง mʉŋ mo (Tagalog)
bird นก nók manok (Tagalog)
eye ตา taa mata (Tagalog)
tooth ฟัน fan ngipin (Tagalog)
hand มือ mʉʉ ima (Ilocano), kamay (Tagalog)
liver ตับ tàp atay (Tagalog)
moon เดือน dʉan bulan (Ilocano and Malay)
water น้ำ náam danum (Ilocano)
rain ฝน fǒn hujan (Malay), ulan (Tagalog)
fire ไฟ fay apoy (Tagalog)
road ทาง thaaŋ daan (Tagalog)
black ดำ dam hitam (Malay), itim (Tagalog)
to drink ดื่ม dʉ̀ʉm inom (Tagalog)
to eat กิน kin kain (Tagalog)
to bite กัด kàt kagat (Tagalog)
to die ตาย taay matay (Tagalog)
this นิ้ níi ini (Malay)

Taiwanese aborigines[edit]

Tables[edit]

Officially Recognized Taiwanese Aboriginal Tribes
English
name		 Chinese
name		 Pinyin
transliteration		 Population Date of recognition Notes
Amis
(Pangcah)		 阿美 Āměi 183,799 Japanese colonial era One of the 9 tribes originally recognized by the Japanese colonial government.
Tribal name means "north."
Paiwan 排灣 Páiwān 88,323 Japanese colonial era One of the 9 tribes originally recognized by the Japanese colonial government.
Atayal
(Tayal)		 泰雅 Tàiyǎ 80,061 Japanese colonial era One of the 9 tribes originally recognized by the Japanese colonial government.
Tribal name means "brave person."
Bunun 布農 Bùnóng 51,447 Japanese colonial era One of the 9 tribes originally recognized by the Japanese colonial government.
Truku
(Taroko)		 太魯閣 Tàilǔgé 25,857 January 14, 2004 Originally classified as Atayal.
Rukai 魯凱 Lǔkǎi 11,911 Japanese colonial era One of the 9 tribes originally recognized by the Japanese colonial government.
Puyuma 卑南 Bēinán 11,850 Japanese colonial era One of the 9 tribes originally recognized by the Japanese colonial government.
Tsou
(Cou)		 鄒 Zōu 6,733 Japanese colonial era One of the 9 tribes originally recognized by the Japanese colonial government.
Seediq 賽德克 Sàidékè 6,606 April 23, 2008 Originally classified as Atayal.
Saisiyat
(Saysiat)		 賽夏 Sàixià 5,900 Japanese colonial era One of the 9 tribes originally recognized by the Japanese colonial government.
Tao
(Yami)		 達悟 Dáwù 3,748 Japanese colonial era One of the 9 tribes originally recognized by the Japanese colonial government.
Also known as 雅美 (Yǎmĕi) or 耶美 (Yémĕi). Tribal name means "person."
Kavalan 噶瑪蘭 Gámǎlán 1,218 2002 Some Kavalan are classified as Amis.
Thao 邵 Shào 693 2001 Originally thought to be Plains aborigines living among the Tsou.
Sakizaya 撒奇萊雅 Sāqíláiyǎ 442 January 17, 2007 Reclassified as Amis during the Japanese colonial era.

Unrecognized Taiwanese aboriginal tribes may include extinct tribes or tribes currently classified with other groups. There are also 25,943 Aborigines who are currently not classified in any group.

Unrecognized Taiwanese Aboriginal Tribes
English
name		 Chinese
name		 Pinyin
Babuza 巴布薩 Bābùsà
Basay 巴賽 Bāsài
Luilang 雷朗 Léilǎng
Hoanya 洪雅 Hé'ānyǎ
Kanakanabu 卡那卡那富 Kǎnàkǎnàfù
Ketagalan 凱達格蘭 Kǎidágélán
Luilang 雷朗 Léilǎng
Makatao 馬卡道 Mǎkǎdào
Popora
(Papora)		 巴布拉 Pāipùlā
Pazeh
(Pazih)		 巴宰 Bāzé
Qauqaut 猴猴 Hóuhóu
Siraya 西拉雅 Xīlāyǎ
Taokas 道卡斯 Dàokǎsī

Maps[edit]

  • The Formosan languages
    The Formosan languages
  • The Formosan languages, per Blust (1999)
    The Formosan languages, per Blust (1999)
  • The Formosan languages, per the Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database (Greenhill, Blust & Gray 2008) harvcol error: no target: CITEREFGreenhillBlustGray2008 (help).
    The Formosan languages, per the Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database (Greenhill, Blust & Gray 2008).

East Asian languages[edit]

In 2001, Stan Starosta proposed a new language family which he called "East Asian." Like Sagart, Starosta groups Chinese and the Austronesian languages together into one family. However, he also adds a Yangtzean branch that includes the Hmong-Mien and Austro-Asiatic languages and places it as a sister branch of Tibeto-Burman.

  • Proto-East Asian
    • Tibeto-Burman-Yangtzean
      • Tibeto-Burman
        • Sino-Bodic
          • Sinitic
          • Tangut-Bodish
        • Himalayo-Burman
          • Kamarupan
          • Southern Himalayo-Burman
          • Qiangic
      • Proto-Yangtzean
        • Hmong-Mien
        • Austro-Asiatic
          • Munda
          • Mon-Khmer
    • Austronesian
      • Formosan
      • Extra-Formosan
        • Kra-Dai
        • Malayo-Polynesian

Tai-Kadai[edit]

In 1988, Jerold Edmondson and David Solnit proposed the following classification, which they called "Kadai."[6][7]

Kadai 

The Tai-Kadai classification below is given by Chamberlain.[7]

Tai‑Kadai 

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ Edmondson, Jerold A. The power of language over the past: Tai settlement and Tai linguistics in southern China and northern Vietnam. Studies in Southeast Asian languages and linguistics, Jimmy G. Harris, Somsonge Burusphat and James E. Harris, ed. Bangkok, Thailand: Ek Phim Thai Co. Ltd. http://ling.uta.edu/~jerry/pol.pdf
  2. ^ Shi Hong, Dong Yong-li, Wen Bo, Xiao Chun-Jie, Peter A. Underhill, Shen Peidong, Ranajit Chakraborty, Li Jin, and Su Bing (2005). Y-Chromosome Evidence of Southern Origin of the East Asian–Specific Haplogroup O3-M122. American Journal of Human Genetics 77:408–419.
  3. ^ Ratliff, Martha. 1998. Ho Ne (She) is Hmongic: One final argument. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 21.2:97-109.
  4. ^ The outlier Kadai branch is called "Kra" by Thai linguist Weera Ostapirat and "Geyang" by Chinese linguists.
  5. ^ van Driem, George. 2005. Sino-Austronesian vs. Sino-Caucasian, Sino-Bodic vs. Sino-Tibetan, and Tibeto-Burman as default theory. Contemporary Issues in Nepalese Linguistics, pp. 285-338. http://www.eastling.org/paper/Driem.pdf (see page 304)
  6. ^ Edmondson, Jerold A. and David B. Solnit, editors. 1988. Comparative Kadai: Linguistic studies beyond Tai. Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington Publications in Linguistics, 86. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington. vii, 374 p.
  7. ^ a b Edmondson, Jerold A. and David B. Solnit, editors. 1997. Comparative Kadai: the Tai branch. Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington Publications in Linguistics, 124. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington. vi, 382 p.

Further reading[edit]

  • Shintani Tadahiko. 2014. The Riang language. Linguistic survey of Tay cultural area (LSTCA) no. 101. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa (ILCAA).
  • Shintani Tadahiko. 2014. The Zayein language. Linguistic survey of Tay cultural area (LSTCA) no. 102. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa (ILCAA).
  • Shintani Tadahiko. 2014. The Wadamkhong language. Linguistic survey of Tay cultural area (LSTCA) no. 103. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa (ILCAA).
  • Shintani Tadahiko. 2015. The Shanke language. Linguistic survey of Tay cultural area (LSTCA) no. 104. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa (ILCAA).
  • Shintani Tadahiko. 2015. The Zotung language. Linguistic survey of Tay cultural area (LSTCA) no. 105. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa (ILCAA).
  • Shintani Tadahiko. 2015. The Kadaw language. Linguistic survey of Tay cultural area (LSTCA) no. 106. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa (ILCAA).
  • Shintani Tadahiko. 2016. The Siam (Hsem) language. Linguistic survey of Tay cultural area (LSTCA) no. 107. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa (ILCAA).
  • Shintani Tadahiko. 2016. The Va (En) language. Linguistic survey of Tay cultural area (LSTCA) no. 108. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa (ILCAA).
  • Shintani Tadahiko. 2016. The Nangki language. Linguistic survey of Tay cultural area (LSTCA) no. 109. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa (ILCAA).
  • Shintani Tadahiko. 2016. The Matu language. Linguistic survey of Tay cultural area (LSTCA) no. 110. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa (ILCAA).
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