User:Shannon1/Sandbox 6

Coordinates: 48°45′54″N 121°32′34″W / 48.76500°N 121.54278°W / 48.76500; -121.54278
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Baker River
Baker River upstream of Baker Lake
Shannon1/Sandbox 6 is located in Washington (state)
Shannon1/Sandbox 6
Location of the mouth of the Baker River in Washington
Location
CountryUnited States
StateWashington
CountySkagit, Whatcom
Physical characteristics
SourceCascade Range
 • locationWhatcom Peak, Whatcom County
 • coordinates48°51′1″N 121°22′52″W / 48.85028°N 121.38111°W / 48.85028; -121.38111[1]
 • elevation5,800 ft (1,800 m)[2]
MouthSkagit River
 • location
Concrete, Skagit County
 • coordinates
48°45′54″N 121°32′34″W / 48.76500°N 121.54278°W / 48.76500; -121.54278[1]
 • elevation
160 ft (49 m)[3]
Length33 mi (53 km)
Basin size297 sq mi (770 km2)[4]
Discharge 
 • locationriver mile 0.7 near Concrete, WA
 • average2,662 cu ft/s (75.4 m3/s)[4]
 • minimum30 cu ft/s (0.85 m3/s)[4]
 • maximum36,600 cu ft/s (1,040 m3/s)[4]

The Baker River is a 33-mile (53 km) long river in Whatcom County and Skagit County, northwestern Washington. It flows southwest from its headwaters in North Cascades National Park through the Mount Baker–Snoqualmie National Forest to Concrete, where it joins the Skagit River. The Baker River watershed includes many high peaks of the North Cascades, including the stratovolcano Mount Baker, with which the river shares its name. Geologically, the course of the river has been heavily influenced by Ice Age glaciations and previous eruptions of Mount Baker. Parts of the river valley are underlain by 500 feet (150 m) of old lava and debris flows, while other sections flow over glacial deposits.

The Baker River was the site of an Upper Skagit village before entry of gold prospectors in the 1850s. Homesteaders arriving in the Skagit Valley discovered limestone deposits at the mouth of the river and founded settlements on either side of the Baker River at its confluence with the Skagit. These deposits were mined starting in the early 1900s and drove the settlement and naming of the town of Concrete, where large cement plants operated until the 1970s.

While the upper reaches of the river flow through wilderness, the lower part has two hydroelectric dams constructed in 1927 and 1959 and operated by Puget Sound Energy. Although the dams block natural fish migration, a fish trapping system has been in use since 1985 to transport salmon around the dams.

Course[edit]

The Baker River originates at Perfect Pass near Whatcom Peak in the northwest area of North Cascades National Park, on the west side of the Picket Range.[2] It flows southwest through a deep, narrow glacial valley for about 10 miles (16 km), descending rapidly to Baker Lake, elevation 722 ft (220 m), in the Mount Baker–Snoqualmie National Forest.[2] Above Baker Lake the river is joined by several significant tributaries, including Mineral, Pass, Crystal, Sulphide, and Lake Creeks from the west and Picket, Bald Eagle, Scramble, and Blum Creeks from the east. With the exception of Lake Creek and Blum Creek, all of these tributaries join within North Cascades National Park.[2] There are a number of large waterfalls on the Baker's tributaries, including Sulphide Creek Falls, which at 2,182 ft (665 m) is one of the tallest waterfalls in North America.[5]

The Baker River flowing through Concrete

At the head of Baker Lake, the valley widens, angling west towards the foot of Mount Baker before turning south. Baker Lake, a reservoir impounded by Upper Baker Dam, is approximately 9 miles (14 km) long and covers 4,800 acres (1,900 ha) when full.[6] Shannon, Swift, Park, Little Park, Boulder, Little Sandy and Sandy Creeks flow into the west side of the lake, while Noisy, Silver, Ermine, Anderson, and Walker Creeks flow into the east side.[7][8]

Directly below Upper Baker Dam the river flows into Lake Shannon, formed by Lower Baker Dam. Lake Shannon is 7 miles (11 km) long, and covers 2,190 acres (890 ha) when full.[6] The river valley narrows again in this section, with the banks of Lake Shannon significantly steeper than those along Baker Lake. Tributaries flowing into Lake Shannon are Sulphur, Rocky, and Bear Creeks from the west, and Thunder and Threemile Creeks from the east.[9] Downstream from Lower Baker Dam the river flows through a short, narrow canyon before entering the Skagit Valley at Concrete and emptying into the Skagit River, 56 mi (90 km) upstream of Puget Sound[9] and about 50 mi (80 km) southeast of Bellingham.

Discharge[edit]

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has operated a stream gage on the Baker River at Concrete from 1910 to the present. The average annual discharge was 2,662 cu ft/s (75.4 m3/s), with the highest annual mean of 3,543 cu ft/s (100.3 m3/s) occurring in 1974, and the lowest of 1,712 cu ft/s (48.5 m3/s) occurring in 1944.[4] The flow of the Baker River at the mouth is heavily regulated for hydroelectric power generation and flood control.

Baker River monthly mean discharge at Concrete, WA (ft3/s)[4]

Watershed[edit]

The 1916 Henry Thompson Bridge crosses the Baker River at Concrete

The Baker River drains an area of 297 square miles (770 km2)[4] and is the second largest tributary of the Skagit River by volume, contributing about 16 percent of its flow. The topography is dominated by high, rugged peaks of the North Cascades. The northern divide of the watershed is formed (from west to east) by Mount Baker (10,765 ft (3,281 m)),[10] Mount Shuksan (9,121 ft (2,780 m)),[11] Ruth Mountain (7,103 ft (2,165 m)),[12] Mineral Mountain (6,811 ft (2,076 m)),[13] Easy Peak (6,621 ft (2,018 m)),[14] and Whatcom Peak (7,592 ft (2,314 m)).[15] South of Perfect Pass the divide (from north to south) includes Mount Challenger (8,229 ft (2,508 m)),[16] Crooked Thumb Peak (8,150 ft (2,480 m)),[17] Phantom Peak (7,996 ft (2,437 m)),[18] Mount Crowder (7,100 ft (2,200 m)),[19] Mount Blum (7,707 ft (2,349 m)),[20] Hagan Mountain (7,054 ft (2,150 m)),[21] Bacon Peak (7,008 ft (2,136 m)),[22] and Mount Watson (6,175 ft (1,882 m)).[23]

The river has more than sixty significant tributaries, with a combined length of 315 miles (507 km).[24] There are 39 lakes and ponds in the Baker River watershed, covering a total of 7,466 acres (3,021 ha). With the exception of Lake Shannon and Baker Lake, all are small, alpine lakes of less than 45 acres (18 ha).[25]: 2  Average precipitation ranges from 70 in (1,800 mm) at the mouth of the river to over 150 in (3,800 mm) in the high Cascades.[24] About 56 percent of the watershed is administered by the U.S. Forest Service, while the U.S. National Park Service administers 30 percent. The remainder is a mix of state and private ownership.[26] Approximately half the total land area is wilderness.[27] The only urbanized areas are in the town of Concrete; however, large portions of the watershed have been altered by logging, mining, road-building, and hydropower development.

Geology and morphology[edit]

Boulder Glacier on the eastern flank of Mount Baker feeds Boulder Creek, a tributary of the Baker River

The Baker River watershed has been shaped by numerous Ice Age glaciations, starting about two million years before present. The most recent glaciation, from about 16,000–12,200 years ago, was the Vashon ice sheet which came down the Skagit Valley from the east and flowed northwards into the Baker River drainage. The ice dammed the Baker River and formed Glacial Lake Baker, which extended north about as far as the head of present-day Baker Lake reservoir.[28] After the glacier retreated, the lake drained and left the Baker River channel deeply scoured about 400 to 500 feet (120 to 150 m) below its present elevation.[29]

The lower Baker River valley was further shaped by a series of eruptions from Mount Baker between 10,350–6,600 years ago, which sent lava flows, pyroclastic flows and mudflows which traveled down tributaries such as Sulphur Creek and Boulder Creek. The volcanic deposits forced the Baker River channel to the east side of the valley from Swift Creek all the way down to Sulphur Creek, and dammed the river to create a small natural lake, known historically as Baker Lake.[citation needed] The lake covered about 550 acres (220 ha) and would later be flooded when the Upper Baker Dam was built.[24] The old channel of the Baker River was buried under several hundred feet of volcanic material.[29]

Soils in the watershed are generally shallow and easily erodible, except for those found at lower elevations. At the head of modern-day Baker Lake, the Baker River valley becomes wider and is characterized by deep, stable soils of glacial till or glacial outwash origin deposited by the retreating Vashon glacier. Downstream of Upper Baker Dam are deep but unstable glacial and colluvial deposits which have been deeply incised by the river, forming narrow canyons.[30] At the mouth of the canyon the Baker River forms an alluvial fan where sediments were historically deposited onto the Skagit River floodplain; there was also a side channel called the Little Baker River within the alluvial fan. In the 19th century this stretch was dredged and straightened as the town of Concrete developed around it, and in conjunction with dams trapping upriver sediment, the alluvial fan is no longer a site of active deposition.[31]

In the present day, there are 63 glaciers covering approximately 11.5 sq mi (30 km2)[32] to 13 sq mi (34 km2)[25]: 2  in the Baker River watershed. Glacier melt contributes significantly to the summer flow of the river – about 16 percent between July 1 and October 1, with a peak of 24 percent in August. In dry years the contribution may reach 50 percent.[32] Like many other areas in the North Cascades, the Baker River has been losing glacier cover since the 1980s.[citation needed] While spring runoff from snowmelt have increased, late summer flows from glacier melt have decreased.[32]

Ecology[edit]

The fish trap and weir on the Baker River at Concrete

Before the start of construction at Lower Baker Dam in 1923, fish could freely pass between the Skagit River and natural (pre-dammed) Baker Lake. The annual sockeye run at that time was estimated to be approximately 20,000 fish.[citation needed] Although the dam blocked salmon migration up the river, a small resident sockeye population (kokanee) persisted in Lake Shannon.[33] Artificial enhancement began in 1896 when the state of Washington constructed a hatchery on Baker Lake. This was the first establishment in the state for the hatching of sockeye salmon.[34] The hatchery closed in 1933. The construction of Upper Baker Dam in 1959 inundated the natural Baker Lake and surrounding valley, including the spawning grounds of the Baker River sockeye. Artificial spawning beds were constructed at the upper end of the new Baker Lake. An additional spawning bed was built on Sulphur Creek in 1990.[35] Because both dams on the Baker River are too high for fish ladders, all returning sockeye are trapped below Lower Baker Dam and transported to the artificial spawning beaches.[36] In 2010 Puget Sound Energy built a new fish hatchery at Upper Baker Dam. The hatchery, along with the improved spawning beds, are expected to produce 11 million sockeye fry each year.[37]

Today, Baker River sockeye are the only known sustaining sockeye population in the Skagit River basin. The Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW) has determined the Baker River sockeye to be genetically distinct from other sockeye salmon. In 1985 only 92 adults were found to return to the river. In 1992 the condition of the population was listed as "critical".[38] Since the 1990s, however, the population has recovered, in part due to improvements in the fish trapping and transportation system. 20,235 fish were counted in 2003[36] and since 2010, the numbers have been between 10,000–30,000 fish counted per year. In 2015, a record 52,243 fish returned to the river.[39]

The Baker River also supports other anadromous salmonids such as coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch),[38] chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), pink (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), and chum (Oncorhynchus keta) salmon, winter– and summer–run steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and sea-run cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki clarki).[40]

History[edit]

Archeological excavations around Lake Shannon and Baker Lake have revealed lithic scatter and stone artifacts dating from 10,800–5,000 years ago.[41] Lushootseed-speaking Native American bands lived in the Skagit and Baker River drainages for centuries prior to European settlement. Sustenance was based primarily on salmon fishing, as both rivers supported large salmon populations. Permanent winter villages of cedar longhouses were sited along tributary confluences with major rivers.[42] The village of S'baliqw/Sabelxu was located near the junction of the Baker and Skagit Rivers.[43] This was the largest and most influential village in the area due to its control of the rivers' confluence.[44] Villages generally represented extended family units; from spring to fall family groups moved between seasonal camps for fishing, hunting and gathering.[45] The 1855 Treaty of Point Elliott was an effort by the U.S. government to force Native Americans in the area to relinquish their lands, and after armed conflict with settlers in the Skagit valley, the natives were relocated to reservations further west. In 1915 the survivors of the Upper Skagit peoples were incorporated into the Upper Skagit Indian Tribe, whose reservation is in western Skagit County.[citation needed]

The river shares its name with Mount Baker, which was named by George Vancouver in 1792 for Royal Navy officer Joseph Baker.[46] However, the river was not seen by Europeans until the 1850s, due to massive log jams preventing upstream boat travel in the Skagit.[47] In 1858 following the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush, a party led by Major John J. Van Bokkelen explored past the log jams hoping to find new gold deposits. Upon finding the Baker River, they explored as far north as Baker Lake, where they found "several camps of friendly Indians" but no gold.[47] In 1870, a Northern Pacific Railroad survey crew camped near the mouth of the river while investigating the feasibility of constructing a railroad over Cascade Pass. D.C. Linsley recorded that the natives called the river Novcultum or Nuhcullum ("white water").[48] The name "Baker River" was first attached to the river in 1877 by prospector Otto Klement, who also named a tributary of the river, Thunder Creek. While Klement also failed to find gold on the Baker, he later discovered gold on nearby Ruby Creek, leading to a gold rush in 1879.[citation needed] Joe Morovits (nicknamed "Mighty Joe" or the "Hermit of Baker Lake") began homesteading on the Baker River in 1891. Morovits was the first person to study volcanic features along the river, correctly dating a lahar on what is now known as Morovitz Creek to the 1845 eruption of Mount Baker. He was also the first to describe what is now known as Kulshan Caldera, which he called an "earlier Mount Baker", at the headwaters of the Swift Creek tributary.[28]

Washington Portland Cement Company plant (left) and Great Northern Railway bridge on the Baker River at Concrete, ca. 1907
Lower Baker Dam construction in 1925

In 1875 Amasa Everett built a cabin on the east side of the Baker River at its confluence with the Skagit. After discovering significant clay and limestone deposits on his homestead he founded the Washington Portland Cement Company in 1892. Magnus Miller claimed land on the west side of the river in 1890 and platted the settlement of Baker City. Access improved when the U.S. government sent crews in 1876–1879 to remove the log jams on the Skagit and open the area to homesteaders, many of whom settled at the mouth of the Baker. The settlement of Concrete City grew across the river from Baker City.[47] In 1901 a branch of the Great Northern Railway was extended to the mouth of the Baker River. A rail bridge across the river was completed in 1908 and was in use until 1925.[49]

With the arrival of the railroad, the Baker River Lumber Company constructed a mill at the mouth of the river and began logging the river's watershed. The chief product was cedar shingles, made from the abundant western redcedar forests. Logs were driven down the Baker River and stored in nearby mill ponds.[47] By 1912 the Sauk Timber Company, Burpee Lumber Company, and Grasmere Shingle Company also established logging operations in the Baker watershed.[47] In 1905 the Washington Portland Cement Plant was constructed, followed by Superior's plant in 1908.[47] In 1909 the towns of Baker City and Concrete City merged, adopting the present-day name of Concrete. In 1916 the Henry Thomson Bridge was built to connect the two sides of the river. At the time it was the longest single-span concrete bridge in the world.[47] In 1917 the Puget Sound Power and Light Company (Puget Power, today owned by Puget Sound Energy) began considering the Baker River as the site for a hydroelectric dam to supply power to Bellingham.[47][50] Work started on the dam in 1924 and was finished in 1927; at the time of its completion, it was the tallest dam in the world.[citation needed]

President Grover Cleveland signed the Washington Forest Reserve – covering more than 3.5 million acres (1,400,000 ha) of the North Cascades – into law in 1897, placing much of the Baker River watershed under management of the U.S. Department of the Interior. In 1907 the area became a national forest under the U.S. Forest Service and was renamed Mount Baker National Forest in 1924. Recreational access to Baker Lake and the upper Baker River was greatly improved due to the roads constructed for the Lower Baker Dam project;[51] previously, a rough 18 mi (29 km) horse trail was the only way into the area.[33] The Baker Lake Ranger and Guard Station operated from 1911 to 1932 on the south shore of Baker Lake.[49] The Baker Lake Resort was founded nearby in 1935 and operated until 1959.[49] In 1968, North Cascades National Park was created from a portion of the national forest.[citation needed] Commercial timber harvest continued on national forest lands until the 1990s, when new regulations under the Endangered Species Act made the area off-limits to logging. However, logging has continued on state and privately owned timberlands in the Baker River watershed.[52]

After World War II the Puget Sound region experienced a population boom. To accommodate the increase in electricity demand, Puget Power planned to expand its hydroelectric facilities on the Baker River. In the early 1950s a new generator was installed in Lower Baker Dam. From 1956–1959 the Upper Baker Dam was constructed, raising the level of Baker Lake by about 300 ft (91 m). The reservoir submerged the sites of the old fish hatchery, ranger station and resort.[49] In 1965 a landslide destroyed the Lower Baker Dam powerhouse,[53] which was rebuilt in ????. The expansion of the Baker River hydroelectric project incited concerns from environmentalists, and was a factor leading to the creation of North Cascades National Park.

In 1973, the last cement plant in Concrete shut down.[54]

Starting in 1975, volcanic activity at Mount Baker caused high loads of acidic and mineralized water to enter the river at Baker Lake. Water levels in Lake Shannon and Baker Lake were drawn down due to concerns about a potential eruption.[28] Scientists feared that a collapse of Sherman Crater could send a lahar into Baker Lake, overtopping the dams on the Baker River and destroying the town of Concrete. Although volcanic activity subsided after 1976, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) installed an early warning system at Mount Baker which operated until about 2000.[citation needed] The USGS determined that if a larger event similar to 1975 were to occur, it could lead to fish kills in Baker Lake and weakening of the concrete structure at Upper Baker Dam.[55]

Dams[edit]



Recreation[edit]

[56]


References[edit]

  1. ^ a b "Baker River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. 1992-12-30. Retrieved 2022-08-04.
  2. ^ a b c d United States Geological Survey (USGS). "United States Geological Survey Topographic Map: Mount Blum, Washington quad". TopoQuest. Retrieved 2022-08-03.
  3. ^ Puget Sound Energy, p. 160.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g "Water-Year Summary for Site USGS 12193400". National Water Information System. U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 2022-08-04.
  5. ^ Swan, Bryan (2017-03-19). "Sulphide Creek Falls". Northwest Waterfall Survey. Retrieved 2022-08-03.
  6. ^ a b Pacific International Engineering (2003-04-09). "Draft Technical Memorandum – Assessment of Additional Flood Control Storage at Baker River Project" (PDF). Skagit River History. Retrieved 2022-08-04. {{cite web}}: line feed character in |title= at position 29 (help)
  7. ^ United States Geological Survey (USGS). "United States Geological Survey Topographic Map: Mount Shuksan, Washington quad". TopoQuest. Retrieved 2022-08-03.
  8. ^ United States Geological Survey (USGS). "United States Geological Survey Topographic Map: Welker Peak, Washington quad". TopoQuest. Retrieved 2022-08-03.
  9. ^ a b United States Geological Survey (USGS). "United States Geological Survey Topographic Map: Lake Shannon, Washington quad". TopoQuest. Retrieved 2022-08-03.
  10. ^ "Mount Baker". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. 1979-09-09. Retrieved 2022-08-04.
  11. ^ "Mount Shuksan". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. 1979-09-09. Retrieved 2022-08-04.
  12. ^ "Ruth Mountain". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. 1979-09-09. Retrieved 2022-08-04.
  13. ^ "Mineral Mountain". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. 1979-09-09. Retrieved 2022-08-04.
  14. ^ "Easy Peak". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. 1979-09-09. Retrieved 2022-08-04.
  15. ^ "Whatcom Peak". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. 1979-09-09. Retrieved 2022-08-03.
  16. ^ "Mount Challenger". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. 1979-09-09. Retrieved 2022-08-04.
  17. ^ "Crooked Thumb Peak". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. 1979-09-09. Retrieved 2022-08-04.
  18. ^ "Phantom Peak". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. 1979-09-09. Retrieved 2022-08-04.
  19. ^ "Mount Crowder". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. 1979-09-09. Retrieved 2022-08-04.
  20. ^ "Mount Blum". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. 1979-09-09. Retrieved 2022-08-04.
  21. ^ "Hagan Mountain". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. 1979-09-09. Retrieved 2022-08-04.
  22. ^ "Bacon Peak". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. 1979-09-09. Retrieved 2022-08-04.
  23. ^ "Mount Watson". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. 1979-09-09. Retrieved 2022-08-04.
  24. ^ a b c Puget Sound Energy, p. 3.2.
  25. ^ a b https://www.google.com/books/edition/Estimates_of_Streamflow_Characteristics/CBokyAyrq7wC
  26. ^ Puget Sound Energy, p. 3.3.
  27. ^ Puget Sound Energy, p. 3.4.
  28. ^ a b c Tucker, David S., Scott, Kevin M. and Lewis, David R. "Field guide to Mount Baker volcanic deposits in the Baker River valley: Nineteenth century lahars, tephras, debris avalanches, and early Holocene subaqueous lava" (PDF). Floods, Faults, and Fire: Geological Field Trips in Washington State and Southwest British Columbia: 83–98. doi:10.1130/2007.fld009(04).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ^ a b Puget Sound Energy, p. 3.9.
  30. ^ Puget Sound Energy, p. 3.11.
  31. ^ Puget Sound Energy, p. 3.17.
  32. ^ a b c "Impact Of Glacier Runoff On Baker Lake And The Baker River Project". North Cascade Glacier Climate Project. Retrieved 2022-08-03.
  33. ^ a b "The Story of the Baker Lake Fish Hatchery is Historic Lore" (PDF). Concrete Herald. 1951-06-21.
  34. ^ Report of the United States Commissioner of Fisheries for the Fiscal Year 1921. Government Printing Office. 1922. p. 238.
  35. ^ "HATCHERY AND GENETIC MANAGEMENT PLAN" (PDF). Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. Dec 1999. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-12-20. Retrieved 2016-06-01.
  36. ^ a b "Sockeye Salmon: Baker River Sockeye". Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. Archived from the original on 28 May 2009. Retrieved 2009-06-01.
  37. ^ "Protecting fish". Puget Sound Energy. Retrieved 2022-08-04.
  38. ^ a b "1992 SASSI "Bluebook" Appendix One, Puget Sound Stocks: North Puget Sound Volume" (PDF). 1992 Salmon and Steelhead Stock Inventory (SASSI) "Bluebook". Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife and Western Washington Treaty Indian Tribes. pp. 207–213. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 June 2009. Retrieved 2009-06-01.
  39. ^ "Baker River Project breaks record for number of young salmon released". Puget Sound Energy. 2017-06-01. Retrieved 2022-08-04.
  40. ^ "Puget Sound Energy Initial Consultation Document Baker River Project, FERC No. 2150" (PDF). Puget Sound Energy. Mar 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-06-24. Retrieved 2016-06-01.
  41. ^ Puget Sound Energy, p. 3.317.
  42. ^ "Upper Skagit". Ethnography of the North Cascades. U.S. National Park Service. Retrieved 2022-08-04.
  43. ^ Puget Sound Energy, p. 3.327.
  44. ^ Miller, Bruce. "Upper Skagit Tribal Historical Overview". Upper Skagit Indian Tribe. Retrieved 2022-08-04.
  45. ^ Puget Sound Energy, p. 3.328.
  46. ^ "Cascade Range Volcanoes – Volcano Names". U.S. Geological Survey. 2016-01-05. Retrieved 2022-08-04.
  47. ^ a b c d e f g h "A History of the Upper Skagit Valley And It's Pioneer People" (PDF). The Concrete Herald. 1951-06-21.
  48. ^ Linsley, D.C. "A Railroad Survey of the Sauk and Wenatchee Rivers in 1870". Northwest Discovery. 2 (4): 112–164.
  49. ^ a b c d Puget Sound Energy, p. 3.318.
  50. ^ https://www.google.com/books/edition/Exploring_Washington_s_Past/BNAYPXb22sYC
  51. ^ Puget Sound Energy, p. 3.8.
  52. ^ Puget Sound Energy, p. 3.230–3.231.
  53. ^ Puget Sound Energy, p. 3.13.
  54. ^ Chattin, Bruce (2005-06-03). "Skagit County town's history is rich in Concrete". Daily Journal of Commerce.
  55. ^ Bortleson, G.C., Wilson, R.T. and Foxworthy, B.L. (1977). "Water-Quality Effects on Baker Lake of Recent Volcanic Activity at Mount Baker, Washington" (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 2022-08-04.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  56. ^ https://www.fs.usda.gov/recarea/mbs/recreation/recarea/?recid=74986&actid=29


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