User:Mille504/sandbox

Group Project Article Evaluations

Group members: user:Mille504, user:isaacsrach, user:Apheera

Joule Heating - selected topic

• Is everything in the article relevant to the article topic? Is there anything that distracted you?
  • I previously added more about food processing but could use some revisions, nice images and organization
• Is the article neutral? Are there any claims, or frames, that appear heavily biased toward a particular position?
  • Neutral article, but heavily focused on the physics of how it works in general and not on the application to food
• Are there viewpoints that are overrepresented, or underrepresented?
  • Overrepresented on the physics of ohmic heating. Not descriptive about all applications in food science
• Check a few citations. Do the links work? Does the source support the claims in the article?
  • The links work and are very descriptive/extensive
• Is each fact referenced with an appropriate, reliable reference? Where does the information come from? Are these neutral sources? If biased, is that bias noted?
  • It is referenced with information provided by The Ohio State University, but not in a journal article or book.
• Is any information out of date? Is anything missing that could be added?
  • A lot more information could be added about food processing such as: types of food used, pieces of equipment, effects on microorganisms/food quality.
• Check out the Talk page of the article. What kinds of conversations, if any, are going on behind the scenes about how to represent this topic?
  • Conversations are about adding new material about power and clarifying wording of material
• How is the article rated? Is it a part of any WikiProjects?
  • Start-class with High-importance
  • WikiProjects Physics
• How does the way Wikipedia discusses this topic differ from the way we've talked about it in class?
  • This article goes more in depth on the science behind the electrical conductance and less about the application of this technology, especially in the food science realm

Food Processing (Note to team... should we consider starting a new article specifically for Food Processing as this one is heavily focused on physics?) -- I like this idea! the document is becoming too long so we should link the original article to the new food processing one- In this case I would suggest calling it Ohmic Heating.

Joule heating (Ohmic Heating) is an HTST, aseptic process that runs an alternating current of 50-60 Hz through food. Heat is generated through the electrical resistance of the food. As the product heats up, electrical conductivity increases linearly. A higher electrical current frequency is best as it reduces oxidation and metallic contamination. This heating method is best for foods that contain particulates suspended in a weak salt containing medium due to their high resistance properties. Ohmic heating allows for a maintained quality of foods due to the uniform heating that decreases deterioration and over-processing of food. THE CITATIONS GOT REMOVED DURING TRANSFER

Benefits

Ohmic heating has similar benefits than other rapid heating methods. This method can destroy microorganisms achieving sterility through electroporation of cell membranes, membrane rupture from the voltage drop across cell membranes, and cell lysis. SHOULD WE EXPLAIN THESE METHODS MORE Yes, briefly

Ideal Food Products

• liquid based products: WE SHOULD ADD MORE EXAMPLES
  • thick soups
  • sauces
  • stews
  • salsa
  • fruit in a syrup medium

In particulate foods, the particles heat up faster than the liquid matrix due to the higher resistance to electricity. This prevents overheating of the liquid matrix while the particles receive sufficient heat processing. Below are some examples of different electrical conductivity values of certain foods to display composition and salt concentration affect electrical conductivity. EXPLAIN WHAT THE DEGREE OF THE NUMBERS MEAN. Need to put this table into context. Cite references for this table.

Electrical conductivity of selected foods

Food	Electrical Conductivity (S/m)	Temperature (°C)
Apple Juice	0.239	20
Beef	0.42	19
Beer	0.143	22
Carrot	0.041	19
Carrot Juice	1.147	22
Chicken meat	0.19	20
Coffee (black)	0.182	22
Coffee (black with sugar)	0.185	22
Coffee (with milk)	0.357	22
Starch solution (5.5%)
(a) with 0.2% salt	0.34	19
(b) with 0.55% salt	1.3	19
(c) with 2% salt	4.3	19

Limitations

Ohmic heating is highly influenced by the electrical conductivity of the product. Dependent on the position of the food relative to the electrodes, there can be areas of overprocessing and underprocessing. Fats, oils, alcohols, bone, and crystalline structures cannot be heated directly by ohmic heating due to their low electrical conductivity values. Similarly, it is difficult to obtain uniform heating in non-homogenous food particulates making it difficult to assure sterility.

Regulations and FDA approval of the technology

Current uses

Sources for Joule / Ohmic Heating- look up articles by Sudhir Sastry

• Chen, Cuiren, and Suvendu Bhattacharya. “Ohmic Heating.” Conventional and Advanced Food Processing Technologies, Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, 2015, pp. 673–690.
• Halden, K., A. A. P. De Alwis, and P. J. Fryer. "Changes in the electrical conductivity of foods during ohmic heating." International Journal of Food Science & Technology 25.1 (1990): 9-25.

• Halden, K., A. A. P. De Alwis, and P. J. Fryer. "Changes in the electrical conductivity of foods during ohmic heating." International Journal of Food Science & Technology 25.1 (1990): 9-25.
• Moreno, J, et al. “Ohmic Heating and Bioactive Compounds.” Innovative Processing Technologies for Foods with Bioactive Compounds, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2017, pp. 275–310.
• Sukumar, M, et al. “Impact of Processing and Storage on Bioactive Ingredients and Nutritional and Sensory Properties of Food.” Food Processing Technologies: Impact on Product Attributes, CRC Press, 2017, pp. 221–287.
• Zareifard, M M, et al. “Ohmic Heating: Principles and Application in Thermal Food Processing.” Handbook of Food Processing, CRC Press, 2016, pp. 389–416.
• Zhao, Yanyun, et al. "Using capacitive (radio frequency) dielectric heating in food processing and preservation–a review." Journal of Food Process Engineering 23.1 (2000): 25-55.- Is this related to ohmic heating or radiofrequency?

Food Drying - obsolete

1. Is everything in the article relevant to the article topic? Is there anything that distracted you?
   • Yes, everything was about drying foods and there were no distractions
2. Is the article neutral? Are there any claims, or frames, that appear heavily biased toward a particular position?
   • This article is neutral as there are no apparent biased claims
3. Are there viewpoints that are overrepresented, or underrepresented?
   • There is no description of equipment used for drying, just the mention of electric food dehydrators
4. Check a few citations. Do the links work? Does the source support the claims in the article?
   • One citation is form 1899 and does not have a link to the reference. The other links work and support the information in the article
5. Is each fact referenced with an appropriate, reliable reference? Where does the information come from? Are these neutral sources? If biased, is that bias noted?
   • Most facts are cited but there are some that are lacking a reference
6. Is any information out of date? Is anything missing that could be added?
   • No information is out of date but the article is missing information about the effects on food and microorganisms, controlling dryers, and the theory behind this technology
7. Check out the Talk page of the article. What kinds of conversations, if any, are going on behind the scenes about how to represent this topic?
   • The Talk page has conversations about references/links and adding information about food groups
8. How is the article rated? Is it a part of any WikiProjects?
   • Rated as a start-class article of High-importance
   • WikiProject Food and Drink
9. How does the way Wikipedia discusses this topic differ from the way we've talked about it in class?
   • We have not discussed drying in depth in class, but have mentioned some basic information that this article mentions

Pasteurization - obsolete

1. Is everything in the article relevant to the article topic? Is there anything that distracted you?
   • The article does a good job presenting general background information and the theory behind this process. The article provides a brief one sentence summaries to HTST and UTH, processes that are important to the industry.
   • The article lacks some basic information like the distinction between pasteurization and sterilization, the effect on spores, and other application of pasteurization besides food processing.Information on microwave volumetric heating is lacking depth compared to other forms of pasteurization presented in this article. Information on the effects on microorganisms, enzymes and food components are ideal, but missing. The limitation on various pasteurization processes could also have been useful.
2. Is the article neutral? Are there any claims, or frames, that appear heavily biased toward a particular position?
   • The article is presented with a neutral point of view. It was noted on the talk page of this article that this article is slightly biased toward the use of unpasteurized milk.
3. Are there viewpoints that are overrepresented, or underrepresented?
   • The article weighs little heavily on the pasteurization of milk.
   • Important pasteurization methods like HTST and UTH are underreprsented.
4. Check a few citations. Do the links work? Does the source support the claims in the article?
   • Majority of the citations reviewed worked and supported the claims in the article. One the topic of Canadian food inspection system, the link leads to error 404. It is likely that the source material for the website may have changed since the addition of this entry.
5. Is each fact referenced with an appropriate, reliable reference? Where does the information come from? Are these neutral sources? If biased, is that bias noted?
   • The article uses reliable sources from textbooks like the "Food microbiology an introduction," and reputable academic journal articles such as Journal of Dairy Science or Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.
   • In one instance, ScienceDaily, news article, secondary source covering gentle pasteurization of milk using microwave heating was used as support. This source biased toward conventional methods like plate heat exchangers, and favors the development of more novel methods for pasteurization of milk with microwaves.
6. Is any information out of date? Is anything missing that could be added?
   • Some cited sources are outdated, going back as far as 1933. The article could be revised by using updated sources to support how the presence of alkaline phosphatase is an ideal indicator of pasteurization efficacy.
7. Check out the Talk page of the article. What kinds of conversations, if any, are going on behind the scenes about how to represent this topic?
   • The talk page have ongoing one sided discussion about unpasteurized milk. One user pointed out that there needs to be a renewed discussion on raw milk. According to user Matt Munson, unpasteurized milk contains "beneficial bacteria" necessary to promote health. This user claims these assertions are backed up by scientific evidence, but fails to back it up with creditable source. It is likely this editor made an incorrect connections between the probiotics present in yogurt and the harmful pathogens present in unpasteurized milk.
8. How is the article rated? Is it a part of any WikiProjects?
   • Article is rated top-importance with B-Class, and level-3 vital article in technology.
9. How does the way Wikipedia discusses this topic differ from the way we've talked about it in class?
   • The article focuses heavily on the debate of raw and pasteurized milk, a point that was also brought up in the talk page of this article. Interestingly, in class the issue over raw versus pasteurized milk did not warrant a long discussion as it did in the talk page.

Flash Pasteurization - obsolete

• Is everything in the article relevant to the article topic? Is there anything that distracted you?
  • Minimal info - no compare and contrast between different pasteurization methods. Could expand on info.
• Is the article neutral? Are there any claims, or frames, that appear heavily biased toward a particular position?
  • claims are neutral but could have more robust information added to the article with expanding sections.
• Are there viewpoints that are overrepresented, or underrepresented?
  • Oversimplification of the overall process.
• Check a few citations. Do the links work? Does the source support the claims in the article?
  • No! Most links send to an Error 404 page.
• Is each fact referenced with an appropriate, reliable reference? Where does the information come from? Are these neutral sources? If biased, is that bias noted?
  • references are not reliable and further information can be extracted for more astute literature
• Is any information out of date? Is anything missing that could be added?
  • There is limited information on the page and as the article has not been edited since 2008, this is an interesting topic that should be populated with further information.
• Check out the Talk page of the article. What kinds of conversations, if any, are going on behind the scenes about how to represent this topic?
  • There are no conversations since 2008.
• How is the article rated? Is it a part of any WikiProjects?
  • rated as start-class topic and not checked for level of importance at this time under the food portal. Under the wine wiki project, the category was rated as low-importance. The category was added to the Food and Drink project.
• How does the way Wikipedia discusses this topic differ from the way we've talked about it in class?
  • In class we have discussed the process and equipment in greater detail

Pascalization - obsolete

**Article selected by JMonfried to review. Critique obsolete**

1. Is everything in the article relevant to the article topic? Is there anything that distracted you?
2. Is the article neutral? Are there any claims, or frames, that appear heavily biased toward a particular position?
3. Are there viewpoints that are overrepresented, or underrepresented?
4. Check a few citations. Do the links work? Does the source support the claims in the article?
5. Is each fact referenced with an appropriate, reliable reference? Where does the information come from? Are these neutral sources? If biased, is that bias noted?
6. Is any information out of date? Is anything missing that could be added?
7. Check out the Talk page of the article. What kinds of conversations, if any, are going on behind the scenes about how to represent this topic?
8. How is the article rated? Is it a part of any WikiProjects?
9. How does the way Wikipedia discusses this topic differ from the way we've talked about it in class?

Dielectric Heating - obsolete

1. Is everything in the article relevant to the article topic? Is there anything that distracted you?
   • Topics covered in this article is relevant, however, more material on dielectric heating and food can be added.
   • There are large body of paragraph with no citation.
2. Is the article neutral? Are there any claims, or frames, that appear heavily biased toward a particular position?
   • The article is presented in a neutral position, but heavily focused on the physic and its mechanism.
3. Are there viewpoints that are overrepresented, or underrepresented?
   • Dielectric heating concerning food applications are underrepresented, including the mechanism of how this process achieves levels of sterilization and pasteurization in food.
4. Check a few citations. Do the links work? Does the source support the claims in the article?
   • Large body of paragraphs are not cited, and the small reference section is comical. It appears that the body paragraphs without citations may be plagiarized. Citation links are all functioning and appropriate for the material.
5. Is each fact referenced with an appropriate, reliable reference? Where does the information come from? Are these neutral sources? If biased, is that bias noted?
   • As previous stated, there are large bodies of facts that are not cited, and possible plagiarized. The limited sources that are cited are from textbooks, NASA website, and reliable journals like Journal of Food Science and Journal of Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition.
6. Is any information out of date? Is anything missing that could be added?
   • Information in the article is current.
   • More information on food application can be added. This includes Information on the effects on microorganisms, enzymes and different food components. Discussion on dielectric heating and free ions in food components is also ideal.
7. Check out the Talk page of the article. What kinds of conversations, if any, are going on behind the scenes about how to represent this topic?
   • Discussion on the Talk page of this article is active. Most of these discussion involves merging related topics like dielectric heating and diathermy, a process that uses high-frequency electric energy as a form of physical or occupational therapy.
8. How is the article rated? Is it a part of any WikiProjects?
   • This article has a C-Class grading and a Mid-importance rating.
9. How does the way Wikipedia discusses this topic differ from the way we've talked about it in class?
   • Unlike in class, this article goes in deep detail on the physics of dielectric heating, and uses math to prove how this process works. Article briefly mentions the effect of dielectric heating on different food application. Nor does this article include the theory how this achieve heat in food pro

Article draft: joule heating

Main article: Ohmic heating (food processing)

Ohmic heating (joule heating, resistance heating, or electroconductive heating) generates heat by passage of electrical current through food which resists the flow of electricity. Heat is generated rapidly and uniformly in the liquid matrix as well as in particulates, and thus producing a high quality sterile product that can be aseptically filled. Electrical energy is linearly translated to thermal energy as electrical conductivity increases, and this is the key process parameter that affects heating uniformity and heating rate. This heating method is best for foods that contain particulates suspended in a weak salt containing medium due to their high resistance properties. Ohmic heating is beneficial due to its ability to inactivate microorganisms through thermal and non-thermal cellular damage. This method can also inactivate antinutritional factors thereby maintaining nutritional and sensory properties. However, ohmic heating is limited by viscosity, electrical conductivity, and fouling deposits. Although ohmic heating has not yet been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for commercial use, this method has many potential applications, ranging from cooking to fermentation.

Process

Figure 1. General process for ohmic heating.

There are different configurations for continuous ohmic heating systems, but the most basic process is outlined in Figure 1. A power supply or generator is needed to produce electrical current. Electrodes, in direct contact with food, pass electric current through the matrix. The distance between the electrodes can be adjusted to achieve the optimum electrical field strength.

The generator creates the electrical current which flows to the first electrode and passes through the food product placed in the electrode gap. The food product resists the flow of current causing internal heating. The current continues to flow to the second electrode and back to the power source to close the circuit. The insulator caps around the electrodes controls the environment within the system.

The electrical field strength and the residence time are the key process parameters which affect heat generation.

Ideal food products

The ideal foods for ohmic heating are viscous with particulates.

• Thick soups
• Sauces
• Stews
• Salsa
• Fruit in a syrup medium
• Milk
• Ice cream mix
• Egg
• Whey
• Heat sensitive liquids
• Soymilk

The efficiency by which electricity is converted to heat depends upon on salt, water, and fat content due to their thermal conductivity and resistance factors. In particulate foods, the particles heat up faster than the liquid matrix due to higher resistance to electricity and matching conductivity can contribute to uniform heating. This prevents overheating of the liquid matrix while particles receive sufficient heat processing. Table 1 shows the electrical conductivity values of certain foods to display the effect of composition and salt concentration. The high electrical conductivity values represent a larger number of ionic compounds suspended in the product, which is directly proportional to the rate of heating. This value is increased in the presence of polar compounds, like acids and salts, but decreased with nonpolar compounds, like fats. Electrical conductivity of food materials generally increases with temperature, and can change if there are structural changes caused during heating such as gelatinization of starch. Density, pH, and specific heat of various components in a food matrix can also influence heating rate.

Table 1. Electrical conductivity of selected foods

Food	Electrical Conductivity (S/m)	Temperature (°C)
Apple Juice	0.239	20
Beef	0.42	19
Beer	0.143	22
Carrot	0.041	19
Carrot Juice	1.147	22
Chicken meat	0.19	20
Coffee (black)	0.182	22
Coffee (black with sugar)	0.185	22
Coffee (with milk)	0.357	22
Starch solution (5.5%)
(a) with 0.2% salt	0.34	19
(b) with 0.55% salt	1.3	19
(c) with 2% salt	4.3	19

Benefits

Benefits of Ohmic heating include: uniform and rapid heating (>1°Cs^-1), less cooking time, better energy efficiency, lower capital cost, and volumetric heating as compared to aseptic processing, canning, and PEF. Volumetric heating allows internal heating instead of transferring heat from a secondary medium. This results in the production of safe, high quality food with minimal changes to structural, nutritional, and organoleptic properties of food. Heat transfer is uniform to reach areas of food that are harder to heat. Less fouling accumulates on the electrodes as compared to other heating methods. Ohmic heating also requires less cleaning and maintenance, resulting in an environmentally cautious heating method.

Effect on microorganisms

Microbial inactivation in ohmic heating is achieved by both thermal and non-thermal cellular damage from from the electrical field. This method destroys microorganisms due to electroporation of cell membranes, membrane rupture, and cell lysis. In electroporation, excessive leakage of ions and intramolecular components results in cell death. In membrane rupture, cells swell due to an increase in moisture diffusion across the cell membrane. Pronounced disruption and decomposition of cell walls and cytoplasmic membranes causes cells to lyse.

Effect on nutrition

Decreased processing times in ohmic heating maintains nutritional and sensory properties of foods. Ohmic heating inactivates antinutritional factors like lipoxigenase (LOX), polyphenoloxidase (PPO), and pectinase due to the removal of active metallic groups in enzymes by the electrical field. Similar to other heating methods, ohmic heating causes gelatinization of starches, melting of fats, and protein agglutination. Water-soluble nutrients are maintained in the suspension liquid allowing for no loss of nutritional value if the liquid is consumed.

Limitations

Ohmic heating is limited by viscosity, electrical conductivity, and fouling deposits. The density of particles within the suspension liquid can limit the degree of processing. A higher viscosity fluid will provide more resistance to heating, allowing the mixture to heat up quicker than low viscosity products.

A food product’s electrical conductivity is a function of temperature, frequency, and product composition. This may be increased by adding ionic compounds, or decreased by adding nonpolar constituents. Changes in electrical conductivity limit ohmic heating as it is difficult to model the thermal process when temperature increases in multi-component foods.

Fouling deposits on the surface of electrodes is caused by direct contact of food surface with electrodes. Formation of deposit layers by thermal denaturation of proteins or redox reactions can create additional electrical resistance. Consequentially, under- or over- processing can occur: over-processing near the electrodes; under-processing creating cold spots near the middle of the circuit. Cold spots signify the possibility of bacterial contamination in food resulting in a shortened shelf‐life. At lower frequencies (less than 50 hz) there is a risk of corrosion with stainless steel electrodes that leach into the food matrix. Higher frequencies (greater than 10 kHz) decrease both corrosion and fouling. Although ohmic heating is limited by fouling deposits, it is less apparent as compared to other thermal heating methods.

Potential applications

The potential applications of ohmic heating range from cooking, thawing, blanching, peeling, evaporation, extraction, dehydration, and fermentation. These allow for ohmic heating to pasteurize particulate foods for hot filling, pre-heat products prior to canning, and aseptically process ready-to-eat meals and refrigerated foods. Prospective examples are outlined in Table 2 as this food processing method has not been commercially approved by the FDA. Since there is currently insufficient data on electrical conductivities for solid foods, it is difficult to prove the high quality and safe process design for ohmic heating. Additionally, a successful 12D reduction for C. botulinum prevention has yet to be validated.

Table 2. Applications of Ohmic Heating in Food Processing

Applications	Advantages	Food Items
Sterilisation, heating liquid foods containing large particulates and heat sensitive liquids, aseptic processing	Attractive appearance, firmness properties, pasteurization of milk without protein denaturation	Cauliflower florets, soups, stews, fruit slices in syrups and sauces, ready to cook meals containing particulates, milk, juices, and fruit purees
Ohmic cooking of solid foods	The cooking time could be reduced significantly. The centre temperature rises much faster than in conventional heating, improving the final sterility of the product, less power consumption and safer product	Hamburger patties, meat patties, minced beef, vegetable pieces, chicken, pork cuts
Space food and military ration	Food reheating and waste sterilization. Less energy consumption for heating food to serving temperature, products in reusable pouches with long shelf life. Additive free foods with good keeping quality of 3 years.	Stew type foods
Ohmic thawing	Thawing without increase in moisture content of the product	Shrimp blocks
Inactivation of spores and enzymes	To improve food safety and enhance shelf life, increased stability and energy efficiency, Reduced time for inactivation of lipoxygenase and polyphenol oxidase, inactivation of enzymes without affecting flavor	Process fish cake, orange juice, juices
Blanching and extraction	Enhanced moisture loss and increase in juice yield	Potato slices, vegetable purees extraction of sucrose from sugar beets, extraction of soy milk from soy beans

Response to peer reviews

The authors in the group would like to everyone below for taking the time to read through our article draft and make suggestions to help improve the Wikipedia reputation.

Response to Samantha

Most comments were positive reflections of the article. Any critique for improvement was taken into consideration and addressed below:

• We have reworked our opening paragraph to summarize all main points.
• Added a statement about decreasing deterioration and over-processing in the benefits section
• Limitations section has been reworked.
• Ideal food products section has been reworked to include more information/references.
• For re-organization, we are creating a new article and our information from the original article will be removed with a link.
• The overall sections of the article were reorganized to make the sections more user friendly.

Response to Ana

Comments were similar to other peer reviews. They have been addressed and sections have been reworked.

• Brief statement for effects on nutrition and microorganisms was added to intro
• References were corrected for formatting
• Order of sections was reworked (repeated comment in peer reviews. A good suggestion!)
• Tone of sentences was reworked to remain impartial
• Article Title: Ohmic Heating in Food Processing
• Statements in sections were reworked to reduce redundancy.
• The syntax in benefit section was improved as noted.
• A closing statement was added in the limitation section to tie in with the information in the benefits section.

Response to John Butz

We addressed his suggestions to make our article flow better and to best inform readers about this processing method. The main comments we addressed were as follows:

• Reorganized the sections (process, food, benefits, limitations, and the potential applications)
• Removed "is likely due" in the statement "inactivation is likely due to the removal of the active metallic groups in the enzymes by the electrical field"
• The intro section includes all main topics: benefits, limitations, and applications added
• Limitations section edited to make sense.
• Regulations section removed
• References were made sure to be used for each fact stated
• Removed repeat sources in references list

Response to A.Prakash

Most comments were previously addressed by other peers/Ian and correction summary is shown below:

• Title was adjusted to reflect "ohmic heating (food processing)"
• Introduction was reworked to improve the flow
• Sections were reordered to be more reader friendly
• Terms, including "protein agglutination" was linked to other wiki articles as applicable
• Removed all pronouns to be more specific throughout article.
• Benefit section was edited to include benefits of volumetric heating and how heat is generated internally.
• Negated the edit for including a "Theory" section as the original article "joule heating" clearly explains and is linked appropriately.
• The theory of ohmic heating was revised and appropriate changes to syntax were made to the limitation section.
• Sentence structure was reviewed in all sections (i.e. "Limitations" section).
• Current uses were adjusted to reflect future applications as FDA has not approved ohmic heating for commercial use
• References are formatted following Wiki automatic citations.

Response to Ian

Ian's comments were all accepted as changes to the article. These took priority over other comments since he is the Wiki Ed reference for our course. Changes were as follows:

• Lead section summarizes all major points
• Linked unfamiliar terms to other Wikipedia articles
• Section headers now have sentence capitalization
• In text citations were moved to go after punctuations, not before