User:Kopph/New sandbox

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Introduction[edit]

Butterfly gardening is a great way to create, improve, and maintain habitat for Lepidopterans including butterflies, skippers, and moths. Butterflies have four distinct life stages—egg, larva, chrysalis, and adult. In order to support and sustain butterflies populations, an ideal butterfly garden contains habitat for each life stage. Butterfly larvae, except the carnivorous harvester (Feniseca tarquinius), consume plant matter and can be generalists or specialists. While butterflies like the painted lady (Vanessa cardui)[1] are known to consume over 200 plants as caterpillars, other species like the monarch (Danaus plexippus)[2] and the regal fritillary (Speyeria idalia)[3] only consume plants in one genus, milkweed and violets, respectively. As adults, butterflies feed on nectar, but they have also evolved to consume rotting fruit, tree sap, and even carrion[4]. Supporting nectarivorous adult butterflies involves planting nectar plants of different heights, color, and bloom times. Butterfly bait stations can easily be made to provide a food source for species that prefer fruit and sap. In addition to food sources, wind breaks in the form of trees and shrubs shelter butterflies and can provide larval food and overwintering grounds[5]. "Puddling" is a behavior generally done by male butterflies in which they gather to drink nutrients and water and incorporating a puddling ground for butterflies will enhance a butterfly garden[6][7]. While butterflies are not the only pollinator, creating butterfly habitat also creates habitat for bees, beetles, flies, and other pollinators[5].

Why Garden?[edit]

A monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) feeding on butterfly weed (Asclepias tuberosa). Monarch populations have been declining in abundance due to loss of habitat in the United States and deforestation at overwintering grounds in Mexico[8].

Butterfly gardening provides a recreational activity to view butterflies interacting with the environment. Besides anthropocentric values of butterfly gardening, creating habitat reduces the impacts of habitat fragmentation and degradation. Habitat degradation is a multivariate issue; development, increased use of pesticides and herbicides, woody encroachment, and non-native plants are contributing factors to the decline in butterfly and pollinator habitat[9]. Pollination is one ecological service butterflies provide; about 90% of flowering plants and 35% of crops rely on animal pollination[10][11]. Butterfly gardens, even in urban, developed neighborhoods provide habitat that increases butterfly diversity and also pollinators like bees, flies, and beetles[12].

Ground-truthing[edit]

Before buying plants and digging into the soil, "ground-truthing" is a necessary first step, Ground-truthing involves surveying your property in order to asses the current resources available. Some aspects to keep in mind are the following:

  • south-facing slopes
  • natural wind breaks
  • present plant species
  • present butterfly species

Butterflies are ectothermic and rely on solar radiation for their metabolism. South-facing slopes are an ideal location for a butterfly garden, as they provide the most solar radiation[13]. Shrubs and trees provide wind breaks for butterflies, and can also be host plants, such as spicebush (Lindera benzoin) or pawpaw (Asimina triloba)[14][13].

Plants[edit]

A coral hairstreak (Satyrium titus) resting on a clump of grass. The larvae will feed upon species in the Rosaceae family, including cherry (Prunus serotina)[14].

The types of plants used in a butterfly garden will determine which species of butterflies will visit your garden. Lepidoptera societies and the Department of Natural Resources often provide state and county distribution maps of local butterflies so you know which species you are able to attract. There are lists of butterfly species and their host plants which are informative to the plant species needed in the garden (Larval food plants of Lepidoptera). While non-native plants do provide flora resources later in the season, they have an overall negative effect on butterflies and other pollinators[15]. Therefore, it is recommended to use native plants. There are lists of plants by region to research which plants would be suitable to plant (https://xerces.org/pollinator-conservation/pollinator-friendly-plant-lists).

Puddling[edit]

"Puddling" refers to the behavior of male butterflies congregating on soil, dung, and carrion to feed on nutrients, specifically sodium[7]. Nectar is low in sodium, and sodium is a limiting nutrient for Lepidoptera. Male butterflies are able to transfer sodium to females during copulation. The sodium is passed onto offspring and increases reproductive success[6]. To create a simple puddling habitat, fill a shallow dish (like a draining tray for a pot) with sand. To increase the nutrients, mix compost with the sand. Add footholds for butterflies by adding different sized rocks.

Baiting[edit]

There are numerous recipes for creating butterfly bait, but they have common ingredients. Fermentation is the key to a good bait, as it mimics the fermentation of rotting fruit and sap in the natural environment[16]. Recipes include blending rotten fruit (i.e. bananas) with beer, maple syrup, molasses, or sugar. Often yeast is added as well to the mixture and left to ferment for a week. The bait can be laid on stumps, rocks, and tree limbs.




  1. ^ "Vanessa cardui". HOSTS - a Database of the World's Lepidopteran Hostplants.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  2. ^ "Danaus plexippus". HOSTS - a Database of the World's Lepidopteran Host Plants.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  3. ^ "Speyeria idalia". HOSTS - a Database of the World's Lepidopteran Host Plants.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  4. ^ Ômura, Hisashi; Honda, Keiichi (2003-11). "Feeding responses of adult butterflies, Nymphalis xanthomelas, Kaniska canace and Vanessa indica, to components in tree sap and rotting fruits: synergistic effects of ethanol and acetic acid on sugar responsiveness". Journal of Insect Physiology. 49 (11): 1031–1038. doi:10.1016/j.jinsphys.2003.07.001. ISSN 0022-1910. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  5. ^ a b Attracting native pollinators : protecting North America's bees and butterflies : the Xerces Society guide. Lee-Mäder, Eric, 1972-, Xerces Society. North Adams, MA: Storey Pub. 2011. ISBN 9781603426954. OCLC 535495615.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  6. ^ a b Pivnick, Kenneth A.; McNEIL, Jeremy N. (1987-12). "Puddling in butterflies: sodium affects reproductive success in Thymelicus lineola*". Physiological Entomology. 12 (4): 461–472. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3032.1987.tb00773.x. ISSN 0307-6962. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  7. ^ a b Smedley, S. R.; Eisner, T. (1995-12-15). "Sodium Uptake by Puddling in a Moth". Science. 270 (5243): 1816–1818. doi:10.1126/science.270.5243.1816. ISSN 0036-8075.
  8. ^ Brower, Lincoln P.; Taylor, Orley R.; Williams, Ernest H.; Slayback, Daniel A.; Zubieta, Raul R.; Ramírez, M. Isabel (2012-03). "Decline of monarch butterflies overwintering in Mexico: is the migratory phenomenon at risk?: Decline of monarch butterflies in Mexico". Insect Conservation and Diversity. 5 (2): 95–100. doi:10.1111/j.1752-4598.2011.00142.x. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  9. ^ Hanula, James L.; Ulyshen, Michael D.; Horn, Scott (2016-10). "Conserving Pollinators in North American Forests: A Review". Natural Areas Journal. 36 (4): 427–439. doi:10.3375/043.036.0409. ISSN 0885-8608. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  10. ^ Hanula, James L.; Ulyshen, Michael D.; Horn, Scott (2016-10). "Conserving Pollinators in North American Forests: A Review". Natural Areas Journal. 36 (4): 427–439. doi:10.3375/043.036.0409. ISSN 0885-8608. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  11. ^ Nicholls, Clara I.; Altieri, Miguel A. (2013-4). "Plant biodiversity enhances bees and other insect pollinators in agroecosystems. A review". Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 33 (2): 257–274. doi:10.1007/s13593-012-0092-y. ISSN 1774-0746. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  12. ^ Matteson, Kevin C.; Langellotto, Gail A. (2010-9). "Determinates of inner city butterfly and bee species richness". Urban Ecosystems. 13 (3): 333–347. doi:10.1007/s11252-010-0122-y. ISSN 1083-8155. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  13. ^ a b Lee-Mäder, Eric, 1972- (2011). Attracting native pollinators : protecting North America's bees and butterflies : the Xerces Society guide. Storey Pub. ISBN 978-1-60342-747-0. OCLC 776997073.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ a b Wagner, David L., 1956- (2005). Caterpillars of Eastern North America : a guide to identification and natural history. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12143-5. OCLC 56955922.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ Hanula, James L.; Ulyshen, Michael D.; Horn, Scott (2016-10). "Conserving Pollinators in North American Forests: A Review". Natural Areas Journal. 36 (4): 427–439. doi:10.3375/043.036.0409. ISSN 0885-8608. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  16. ^ Laaksonen, Jesse; Laaksonen, Toni; Itämies, Juhani; Rytkönen, Seppo; Välimäki, Panu (2006-06-01). "A new efficient bait-trap model for Lepidoptera surveys – the "Oulu" model". Entomologica Fennica. 17 (2): 153–160. doi:10.33338/ef.84301. ISSN 2489-4966.
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