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The General Survey of Iran

Iran, the Land of four seasons with its rich and colorful history, countless monuments, Iranian hospitality and delicious food.

Iran is one of the world’s oldest civilizations, and has been among the world’s most thoughtful and complex civilizations from the very beginning.

There are aspects of Iranian civilization that, in one way or another, have touched almost every human being on the planet.

Tehran, the capital city of Iran, is the country's largest and most populated city. Isfahan, Shiraz, Tabriz and Mashhad are other major cities of the country.

Persian (Farsi) is the official language of the country and is widely spoken. A large number of people also speak other languages/dialects namely Azeri, Kurdish, Luri, Arabic, Baluchi, Gilaki, Mazandarani/Tabari, and Turkmen.

The Islamic Republic of Iran

Map of Iran

Iran is one of the oldest civilizations in the world.  In fact, it is one of the few countries with a long recorded history. Replete with numerous incomparably unique features, this ancient nation has fascinating history unshared with others.  The Iranian style of architecture is unique and creative among the many.

The country is culturally unique, and actually one of the richest in the world in terms of diversity, and natural beauties.  Throughout, its culture has been influenced by others, from the Nile River to the heart of Europe . Due to the fact, and its strategic location that rings Asian, European and African civilization as interconnecting point. Iran is gifted with diverse cultures that have created a robust nation. It is a country where the people live in unity and diversity cheerfully in faith and conviction.  It is also a country where works of nature have been so captivating that they are genuinely appreciated all over the world.

The Iranian history dates back to over 9,000 years and pictorial writings in the west of Iran date back to over 3,200 years before Christ.The Iranian dynasty  (the Achamenians) was founded in Fars province over 2500 years.

Iran was ruled by different monarchs (446 kings) ever since until the 1979 revolution that established the Islamic Republic of Iran by destroying the social basis of Iran.

Iran is among the few countries in the world to keep its independence and has never been fallen under colonial rule or protectorate (lbid). Furthermore, as Mackey wrote “---the core question for Iranians who as an ancient, fiercely independent people are painfully groping for a new identity defined in terms of unique Persian Shia heritage.”

However, it has experienced two coup d'état and revolutions. The coup d'état staged by Reza Shah, in 1920 led to the establishment of the Pahlavi Dynasty in 1924. The coup of 1953 backed by Britain and USA in support of Reza Shah’s son, led to the fall of the national government of Mohammed Mossadeq.

The 1906 Revolution in Iran, was known as the Constitutional revolution. It has brought an end to absolutism in Iran and opened the path for the development of parliamentary systems of monarchical constitution.

Khomeini with people

The 1979 Revolution was led by Imam Khomeini, one of the great Iranian clerics. 

This revolution was Islamic revolution that shook the basis of the feudal political system and its institutions where the monarch had absolute political power to exercise once and for all. The revolution created a condition for the establishment of democracy and national religious beliefs of the people

The historic making of Iran

The Persian history of Iran

The Iran of today was called Persia.  Persia had been in the mainstream of world history for some 2,500 years.  The date of settlement on the Iranian plateau from the New Stone Age (Neolithic) until the immigration of the Aryan races is not clear.  But as available evidences reveal there had been settled living long before. 

The older settlement centers were around springs and rivers where living conditions were more habitable.  In these centers of civilizations a number of relics have been found, some of which go back to fifth millennium B.C.

Map of the Persian Gulf

The immigration of the Indo-European races to the Iranian plateau started in the second millennium B.C.   A group of the Indo- European race, who had immigrated to the south, settled along Zain and Jihon rivers. 

This group was known for its use of horses in wars against the Ilamits, the formerly settled people, and occupied their territories expanding down to the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman.  This group of people called itself Aryan.  The term Aryan literally is to mean genuine, noble and honest.  The Aryans settled all over Iran in tribal groups and were living as cattle breeders.  The major tribes were the Medes who had settled in the west, the Perse who had settled in the South, and the Parthes in the south east.

The Aryans were renowned house riders and robust fighters.  During this time the king of the Aryans was called Jamshid.  He called on his tribesmen to worship Ahuramazda, literally to mean God in ancient Persian.  He was also the founder of Nourouz

Nourouz is the New Year that marks the beginning of spring in Iran.  As the situation was moving in the direction to unite the tribes in custom and religious identification, a person called Zoroaster declared his prophecy.  He aimed to unite all Aryans and ameliorate their beliefs.  Except Sokahas, by and large all Aryan tribes believed in Zoroastrianism.  But a Touranis group of the Sokahas tribe opposed the prophecy of Zoroaster and fought against his followers.  In one of the battles Zoroaster was killed.

A map of the Median Empire at its greatest extent (6th century BC), according to

Meanwhile the chieftain of the Medes tribe who was called Dia-Eko called on his tribesmen to unite and protect their sovereignty in the west against the attack of the Ashurs. Thus, a king of Medes called Cyaxares ordered his tribes men to build well prepared contingent forces.

He completely defeated the Assyrians and expanded his realm up to Asia Minor. This was the prelude to the establishment of the Median Dynasty. 

Persis map

Its capital was Ecbatana In 550 B.C., Cyrus, a member of the Passargad tribe revolted against the Median monarch called Astyages who was the ruler of the time in protest against the oppression of the aristocratic class.  Cyrus was a sub-king of Persa or Persis.

He organized ten Persian tribes and overthrew the Median Dynasty and founded the Achaemenian Dynasty which was the first world empire in 553 B.C. .

The Achaemenian Dynasty

Cyrus the Great Tomb, Pasargadae

Cyrus ruled over the Persian Empire until 530B.C.  He expanded his territory and by 546 B.C. controlled Armenia, Asia Minor, and the Greek colonies along the Mediterranean shore:  He led an army east to conquer regions such as Parthia, Chorasmia, and Bactria. 

In 539 B.C. Babylon was besieged and finally taken through the stratagem of diverting the Euphrates River.

Cyrus died in 529B.C; he was not only a world conqueror and effective organizer, but the first to display the spirit of tolerance which is unique to Iranian character. .

Cyrus was succeeded by his son Combyses who conquered Egypt, and later fell insane  and killed himself during a revolt led against him by a priest called Gaumata, who later ruled the country for a brief period and killed by the heads of the noble families .

Darius In Parse

Darius I, the leader of the avengers, sprang from a different branch of the Achaemenid family was made king in 521B.C. 

He subdued all internal oppositions and put down a wave of rebellions throughout the empire.  He crossed the Bosphorous in 512 B.C., subdued Thrace, and crossed the Danube, but withdrew without consolidating his success .

  He also led two campaigns against the revolting Greek colonies in Asia Minor in 492 and 490 B.C. that ended unsuccessful

Darius I also constructed the Parseh palaces complex (Perespolis) in the northern part of Shiraz.  The epigraph of Ganjnameh in Hamedan, which was written on it in three languages (Old Persian, Illami and Babylonian), belongs to his period

Xerxes I succeeded his father Darius I in 485B.C. He followed his father’s policy and led a Third Campaign against Greece with a force of 900,000 men that culminated in the capture and burning of Athens in 480 B.C.  However, the Persian fleet was defeated in the Battle of Salamis and Platea and was forced to withdraw to Asia Minor.

His son Artaxerxes I succeeded him in 465B.C. and ruled up to 424B.C.  His period was witnessed by the internal decay of the empire and eruption of revolts in Egypt and other Satrapies (province), until the accession of Artaxerxes III, who ruled from 359 - 338B.C.

The Persian Empire finally came to an end under the time of Durius III .  The history of Persia in Achaemenid times and the details of its political, economic, social and military structure were driven from the Greek sources, particularly from Herodotus.  Politically the empire was divided into twenty administrative provinces, each under a governor that was recruited from Royal families and the post tended to be hereditary.  The basic political system was centered on the establishment of monarchical absolutism while there were semi-independent provincial rulers that continued in Iran until the end of the 19^th century .

The ruling aristocracy claimed to be divine and to have retained a chivalrous spirit.  The royal inscriptions were limited to recording briefly the family line and religious faith of the ruler, the names of the provinces, the suppression of revolts, and details about the building of royal palaces.  In this respect one can cite for instance the long inscription of Darius on the rock cliff of Behistun that reads

  I am Darius, the great king, king of kings, king of lands peopled by all races, for long king of this great earth, reaching even far away, son of Hystaspes, the Achaemenian, a Persian, Son of a Persian, an Aryan of Aryan descent.

The Persian army was structured into six corps of 60,000 each, each corps is composed of six divisions of 10,000 men, the cavalry mounted on horses and armed with vows and the Javelin.  The ruler’s personal, bodyguard was composed of 10,000 members, known as the Immortals, who were recruited from the leading families of Persia proper .

There were roads developed that linked provinces, of which the most vital was the “Royal Road” which ran from Susa up through Mesopotamia and Asia Minor to the city of Sardis, a distance, 15,000 miles . Messengers and travelers used a post system of relays of fresh horses stationed at the many points along the routes.  Agriculture flourished during the period.  The taxation was in kind and later systematic taxation was introduced with the unit of payment in the gold daric.  Big administrative and royal residence sites (Susa, Babylon, and Ecbatana) emerged, while Perespolis became the spiritual center of the Persian Empire.  The racial groups were allowed to retain their own religions and their ruling families to continue on power.

Over all the Achaemenid Persians were brilliantly cultured people toward assimilation of external civilizations. 

In this regard, for instance, Herodotus as noted said, “There is no nation which so readily adopts foreign customs as the Persian.  As soon as they hear of any luxury they instantly make it their own.”  when compared the then time civilized Greek with the Achaemenid Persians further said:for we know that Cyrus despised the commercial habits of the Greeks and it is apparent that in the fields of public administration, political organization, continuity of government, and tolerance of race and creed the Achaemenids far surpassed the Greek city states.

However, the Achaemenid Empire was conquered by another world conqueror, Alexander the Great a conquest that had far reaching effect on the history of Iran, for it put an end to the integrity of the ancient east and oriented it toward the west .

In 351 B.C., Alexander conquered the Persian Empire.  He looted all belongings and wealth from the palaces and religious centers, then after, set on fire .  Alexander, born in 356 B.C, was the son of Philip of Macedonia,.  In 336 B.C. he followed his father’s policies, first stabilizing the Greek mainland and conquering Persia at the head of some 35,000 men. At Issues, the northeastern coast of the Syrian coast, he routed an enormous Persian force commanded by Darias III, who fled when the tide of the battle ran against him. Alexander conquered Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia and crossed the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers.  At Arbela he again defeated the reorganized and reinforced army of Darius III. 

Again Darius III fled.  In 330 B.C Alexander set out in pursuit of Darius III, first to Ecbatana, then to the Elborz Range where he found the Achaemenid king, slain by his own followers. 

Alexander thought of creating a New World state which would unite Macedonian and Iranian elements on the basis of equality. 

Thus, for the realization of the union of the peoples, he married the oldest daughter of Darius III and also encouraged 10,000 of his troops to get married with Persian brides.  He died when he was about 33 years old, smitten with fever at Babylon in 723 B.C. . Darius III was the last monarch of the Achaemenian Dynasty. After the death of the skillful general (Alexander), the occupied vast area fell into the hands of the army commanders.  Thus, Solukus, one of

Alexander’s commanders, succeeded him and ruled over Persia over 80 years.  The Iranian aristocrats and Macedonian commanders held the top posts in the Solukid political modus operandi.

The Parthian period

In 248 B.C., Ashk, a Parthian hero, declared a war against the Solukids.  The war lasted over hundred years.  Tirdad (Ashk II) overthrew the Soulkid monarch, Antiokhus III, in 140 B.C. and established the Arsacides Dynasty. 

The Solukids retreated to the western part of Euphrates. The major problem of this dynasty was that the provinces of Persia, Azerbaijan and Armenia did not obey the power of the dynasty.

In order to persuade Arsacides established a council of Mahestan, composed of renowned personalities of the country . 

The Parthians were known as the Arsacids in history after their first rulers, who were originally a nomadic Saka tribe. 

The tribe came from Caspian and took over the Parthian of the Achaemenid Empire.  In the Parthians period there were six famous kings.  They were

A.  Arsaces I (248-246 B.C) – Led a successful revolt against the Seleucid governor.

B.  Arsaces II (246 – 211 B.C.) – Established the independence of the new kingdom.

C.  Arsaces III (211 – 190 B.C.)_ resisted the efforts of the Seleucids to re conquer it.   

D.  Mithradates I (171-138 B.C) – A great leader who extended Parthian rule over Bactria, Parsa, Babylonia, Susiana and Media and allowed subject kings to retain their thrones.

E.  Mithradates II (123-87 B.C) – who consolidated and expanded the Parthian holdings until they stretched from within India to Armenia and took the title of “king of kings.”

1. Phraates III (70-57 B.C.) – He conducted a series of wars with Rome along their common frontiers which continued intermittently for nearly three hundred years.

With the triumphs of mithradates II, the Parthians considered themselves as the political heirs of the Achaemenids.  Both Iranian and Hellenistic cultures were combined and Greek was chosen as the official language (ibid: 29). 

new Parthian cities, including its capital, Ctesiphon were built in Mesopotamia, and Iran proper stayed outside the main stream of commercial and artistic activity

In the first century A.D. the Parthians went away from Hellenistic modes of thought.  It was during this time that Mazdaism was chosen as the official religion whereby the Magic gained power and prestige. Between A.D. 50 and 77 the first attempt was made to codify the Mazdean traditions and the first Avesta was prepared by order of a Parthian ruler. 

However, Parthians were tolerant to- ward all religions and permitted Christianity to spread, in the second century A.D., throughout the western part of the empire

The Sasanian period

About A.D. 211 Ardashir organized revolt in the province of Fars. 

The Sasanian Empire expansion (prototype) recolour

In A.D. 224 Ardashipr the son of Babak overthrew the Arsacides Dynasty and killed the last Parthian ruler in the battle in Susiana through the support of the aristocratic class of the time.  Ardashir soon controlled all of Iran except the provinces of Armenia and Bactria and established a new dynasty called Sasanian Dynasty in 226 A.D.  

Ardashir declared Mazdaism the state religion. 

He went into conflict with Rome and Byzantium that continued through out the entire Sasanian period. His son and successor, Shapour I, AD 241-271) declared many wars against the Roman Emperor and held him prisoner until his death Shapour recognized Zoroastrianism as the official religion of Iranians and the Avesta (the sacred book of Zoroastrians) was compiled

There were forty Sasanian rulers.  The most important kings of the dynasty, were IV. However, the period witnessed the rebirth of a Nationalistic Iran, strong and prosperous in her own right and unreceptive to foreign contacts and influences. 

There was remarkable peace and security domestically because of efficient and centralized administration.  The army was paid from the royal treasury and controlled.

The people were divided into four groups: clergy, Warriors, secretaries and commoners including farmers, merchants and artisans.  The first three of these groups made up the nobility with its special titles and insignia.

The highest grade was the Shahrdar the provincial governors of the Sasanian family and the army which was largely recruited from the fourth class of the nobility. The language continued to be Middle Persian written with complex Pahlavi script that today has taken a new Persian form or Farsi.

Mazdaism remained strong state religion throughout the period.  The church had a supreme and a highly numerous clergy with two Magi residents in each village.  There were other religions preached, however, the Mazdak sect persisted up to Islamic times. Christians were persecuted because their religion was identified with the religion of the rival Roman Empire With the expansion of Islam in Saudi Arabia, Prophet Mohammed in a letter to Khosrow Parviz called on him to become a Muslim.  The king with sheer arrogance tore the letter

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Geopolitical Settings of Iran

The ancient land, Iran, is part of a mountainous table land called the Iranian plateau.  The plateau is bounded on the south by the portion Gulf and the sea of Oman; on the west by the plains of Transitional and western foothills of Zeros mountains, on the north by the Ox us river, the Caspian sea, Turkmen steppes and Korea (korus) river; the Caspian sea, Turkmen steppes and Korea (Korus) river; and on the east by the plains of the Indus river and pair mountains.  This mountainous plateau located in North Temperate Zone and in the South.  Western Asia has distinctive geographical characteristics owing to the direction and the altitude of its mountains.  The geographical limits of present day Iron are part of the Iranian plateau with an area of 1,633,189 sq.k (62.8% the total plateau). This area is located 3, 25 to 47, and 39 degrees on northern latitude against the equator axis and on 5 and 44, 18 and 63 degrees on eastern longitude from Greenwich Meridian.

The present-day Iron is bonded by the Persian-Gulf and the sea of Oman in the South, in the west by Iraq and Turkey, in the north by the Caspian Sea, in the northwest by the Republic of Turkmenistan, and in the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan.  The length of the Iranian borders exceeds, 7, 817 sq. km including.

Around 120km of border with the autonomous Republic of Nakhichevan from the confluence of Ghana So and Arras (Abacus) rivers up to Alameda.

40 km of border with Armenia, from Alamode up to the neighborhood of ‘Cordoba’.

468 km of border with the Republic of Azerbaijan, from ‘Cordoba’ up to the Astoria port.

664km of boarder in the littorals of the Caspian Sea with the Republic of Kazakhstan, and with the Republic of Turkmenistan, from Asmara port up to the delta of the Amtrak River.

960km of border with the Republic of Turkmenistan from the delta of Amtrak River up to the mouth of Zolfaghar.

864 km of border with Afghanistan, from the mouth of Zolfages has up to Malik Siyah Koch.

852km of border with Pakistan, from Malik Siyah Kod Kooh up to Gwadar bay.

2025km of border on the littorals of the Sea of Oman and the Persian Gulf, from Gwadar bay up to the month of the Avid River.

1336km of border with Iraq, form the month of Fad up to Dala Pardagh.

Iran extends for about 2, 600kms from north to south and about 2,100kms from east to west.  It is situated between latitude 37⁰ and latitude 25⁰  north and between longitude 44⁰ and longitude 61⁰  east .

The political Iranian borders in the north, west and south are natural boundaries.    They might have been subjected to changes with natural phenomena is the course of history and as such do not have systematic geometrical shapes. The northern boundaries of Iran adopt with natural phenomena, they have been drown under colonial pressure and expansionist policies.  The geopolitical location of Iran is  “between for Eastern Asia and the lands of the Mediterranean and Europe” , that made her to be “the bridge for communication by land” For many years Iran served as the “main trade routes between the far East and the west crossed northern Iran, and later on, when sea routes became of equal  importance, additional highways led up from parts along the Persian Gulf to the principal commercial centers both within the country and beyond its frontiers .

The opening of the Suez Canal had negative impact on the overland trade routes of Iron as a channel and this had heralded a period of political and military weakness.

Iran is located in the center of ancient civilizations.  She is found in between the Chinese and Indus valley civilization in the east and Transoxianian Nile Valley civilizations in the west  I rains strategies geopolitical locations have contributed to her prominent position during the vicissitudes of the history of mankind civilization .  However, Irons strategic settings on crises-cross-road as bridge between civilizations as dividing and connecting point has “made her a bone of contention between great powers whose interests were diametrically opposed .  Thus, Iran’s strategic location rather than becoming a reward for her, it became liability and its people  had to wage series of wars in order to maintain the present boundaries in 13^th century against the powerful neighbors .

Iran in the Middle of Silk Road

Iran due to its strategic locations since the time ancient had been playing an interconnecting role between different regions. Different trades had been passing through its borders and due to that the country had chances to have contacts with different civilizations. This has enabled the country to develop various cultures and develop its own unique cultures of diverse type.

Silk was dominant trade item for long time. It was coming from India and passing through Persia to Europe. Similarly, it was coming from China, Mesopotamia, etc. and passing through Persia. Thus Persia was serving as a bridge for interconnecting various regions and called as the Silk Road.

The key role that Persia had played in dominating the Silk trade helped the country to develop its economic potential as well as control its movement. Not only the Persia of the time controlled the Silk trade that was passing from India, China, Mesopotamia and other regions but also that was coming to Horn of Africa.

Persia and Axum had close relations that was standing long. The Axum state was importing Silk through Persia. This is well dealt in chapter six of this handout. Furthermore, additional ideas about the Silk trades of Iran are written in chapters one and six of this handout. Thus it is redundant to repeat the same ideas here.

The natural, human and social characteristics of Iran

The climate and climatic condition

Iran is a country of varying climates.  The climate variance from place to place is great. The northern, western and southern parts of the country have so high mountains that curtain the humid winds from the Cassia Sea, the Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf do not reach the inner parts of the Iran.  Because of this the outer foothills of these mountains are humid while its inner foothills are dry.

The climate of the Southern littorals of the Caspian Sea is mild and because this of  there is high precipitation in the western costs of Glean more than other regions.  The average annual temperature is around 18⁰ C.

The western part of the country has a Mediterranean climate, whereas in the southern regions, the semi-desert climate brings its impact on that. In this region the summers are very lot in the valleys and during winters it is mild and is very cold.

In the southern region, because of the humid climate the entire region has high temperature.  In Knoozestan province the maximum summer temperature reaches 54⁰ C. The hot summers and mild winters are the main characteristics of this region, as well as variation in day and night temperatures.

There is Elburn Mountain in the north and Zagros in the west. Because of those mountains the inland climate of the Iranian plateau is dry and desert.  Due to that, when one moves from west to east and north to south, the amount of humid winds decreases and the temperature rises.

The central, eastern and south-eastern regions of Iran have a desert climate with harsh winter and hot summers marked by diversity of day and night temperatures.

The Iran’s climatic conditions are diverse and are equal to the climatic diversity of the whole continent.  However, the largest portion of Iran is dry.  It is calculated that out of the total 1,633,189 sq. km area of Iran 3/4^th (approx.  1,200,000sq. km) area has dry climate.  Again out of this area approximately 700,000sq.km. Area has a desert climate, and other 500,000 sq. km has a semi desert climate .

Thus, Iran climatically can be grouped into three major groups, namely, Desert, Semi-desert and Mild regions.

Desert Regions

This type of climate is observed in two parts of Iran.

    In southern coasts from Goovater up to Khoozeston which is called dry coastal climate.

    Inside deserts and salt ranges, which we call the dry in – land climate.

Dry coastal climate:- This climate is characterized by more heat with humidity and a less amount of rain fall.  The main characteristics of this climate is more of mist and humidity, assorted by extraordinary heart that make life difficult .  The temperature in the coastal area varies from 36.2 C to 53 C.

Dry in-land climate:-  This climatic area is vast and stretches from Tehran up to Pakistan and from the central mountains to eastward up to Afghanistan.  The main characteristic of this climate is diversity in day and night temperatures.

 Semi-desert (alpine) type climate.

This climate separates the desert and humid climate, and covers about 500,000km² of Iran.  Thus type of climate is found in the foothills of Zagros and extends up to Iraqi border and the eastern foothills of Zagros, Megan Steppe and Gorgan plains and extends up to Pakistan.  

Mild climate

Mild climate covers vast area of Iran Of the total area around 1/4^th , i.e.  400,000sq.km. falls within this climatic conditions.  Majority of the Iranian population live in this climate.  The main characteristic of this climate is that, its mean temperature during the coldest months should be less than -3⁰ C and its maximum temperature during the hottest months should not exceed 18⁰ C .

This climate is divided into two categories Mild-Mountainous and Mild Caspian.

The Mild mountainous climate:- This climatic condition is found around mountainous  area of the Azerbaijan, Elburn, Zagros and control part of Iran.  The temperature varies from place to place within the same climatic zone.

The Mild Caspian climate: This climate condition is divided into two- Humid Caspian and Dry Caspian. Over all the Mild climate is important from human and economic points of view.  It is this in part of Iran that you find reasonable amount of rainfall. It varies from 1326mm in Astara to 1154mm in Gorgan (Ibid: 24).

There is the coldest climatic zone in Iran.  The temperature during the coldness mouth drops below zero and reaches -3⁰ C. As a whole Iran has dry climate and due to this fact the country exercises various modes of life and activities Climate has its own positive and negative impact on the country’s political, economic and social activities in internal and external relations.  From these perspectives it is of great importance to study the climate and climatic conditions of the Iran.