User:Iazyges/Severus Alexander

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Not to be confused with Septimius Severus, Valerius Severus, Libius Severus, or Alexander (Byzantine emperor).
Severus Alexander
Bust of Severus Alexander
26th Emperor of the Roman Empire
Reign11 March 222 – 18/19 March 235
PredecessorElagabalus
SuccessorMaximinus Thrax
Born(208-10-01)1 October 208
Arca Caesarea, Syria Phoenicia Province (modern Akkar, Lebanon)
Died19 March 235 (aged 26)
Moguntiacum, Germania Superior
SpouseSallustia Orbiana
Sulpicia Memmia
Names
Marcus Julius Gessius Bassianus Alexianus
(from birth to adoption);
Caesar Marcus Aurelius Alexander (from adoption to accession);
Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander Augustus
(as emperor)
Imperial DynastySeveran
FatherMarcus Julius Gessius Marcianus
MotherJulia Avita Mamaea
Roman imperial dynasties
The Severan Tondo
Severan dynasty
Chronology
193–211
198–211
with Geta
209–211
211–217
211
Macrinus' usurpation
217–218
218
218–222
222–235
Dynasty
Severan dynasty family tree
All biographies
Succession
Preceded by
Year of the Five
Emperors		 Followed by
Crisis of the Third
Century

Severus Alexander (Latin: Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander Augustus 1 October 208 – 19 March 235) was Roman Emperor from 222 to 235 and the last emperor of the Severan dynasty. He succeeded his cousin Elagabalus, upon the latter's assassination in 222, and was ultimately assassinated himself, marking the epoch event for the Crisis of the Third Century — nearly 50 years of civil wars, foreign invasion, and collapse of the monetary economy, though this last part is now disputed.

Early life[edit]

Severus Alexander was born on 1 October 208 AD, in the city of Arca Caesarea in the province of Syria, roughly 20 kilometres (12 mi) north-east of the city of Tripoli. He was born to Marcus Julius Gessius Marcianus, and Julia Avita Mamaea. Much of the information on the career of his father, Marcianus, has been lost, however it is known that he was of equestrian status, held multiple procuratorships, and was adlected to the Senate. Much more is known of his mother, Mamaea. She had previously been married to an unknown senator of consular status, who died before 212 AD.. She then married Alexander's father, Marcianus. Mamaea was related to Emperor Septimius Severus through her mother, who was the sister of Septimius Severus' wife. Mamaea was also descended from the kings of the Roman client kingdom of Emesa. Despite her connection to the imperial dynasty being tenuous, she was a member of the imperial court in the reigns of Septimius Severus and Caracalla.[1] During his early years he served as a priest of Elagabalus, a honor awarded by his ancestry, as the descendants of the kings of Emesa were allowed to maintain the honors of being the priests of Elagabalus even after their client kingdom was annexed some time after 70 AD.[2] After Caracalla was assassinated on 8 April 217 AD, Macrinus seized the throne, and forced Mamaea to stay in Emesa. Due to their links to the Severan Dynasty being weak, Alexander and his cousin Elagabalus were not executed, something which would almost certainly have been done if they had close links to the dynasty, to remove their threat to Marcinus' rule.[3]

Revolt[edit]

In 217 AD, shortly after being forced home to Emesa, Alexander's mother Mamaea began to conspire to take the throne from Macrinus, by way of having Elagabalus, Alexander's cousin, instated.[4] However, neither Alexander or Elagabalus had credible claims to the throne. Thus Mamaea fabricated a lie, that both Alexander and Elagabalus were the illegitimate sons of Caracalla, with Alexander being the son of Caracalla and herself, and Elagabalus being the son of Caracalla and Julia Soaemias, her cousin. So effective in spreading this lie was she that even contemporary accounts were confused. Herodian writes that they are the children of Caracalla, however Cassius Dio does not. The Roman Army, who despised Macrinus, were fond of Caracalla, and so flocked to what they believed to be his illegitimate sons. It is believed that Elagabalus even showed some physical similarities to Caracalla, reinforcing the claim.This was furthered by the promises of donatives (donations to the soldiery made by an Emperor) made by Julia Maesa, the mother of Mamaea, allowing her to rapidly gain support among the military.[5]

On 15 May 218, Elagabalus was hailed as emperor by Legio III Gallica at their legionary fortress, 40 miles (64 km) away from Raphanaea. The accounts for this event diverge. Dio says that Gannys, the lover of Soamias, and foster father of Elagabalus, took Elagabalus to the legionary fort without the knowledge of any of his relatives; However, Herodian says that the entire family went with him, and that Mamaea herself had planned it.[6] Macrinus traveled to near the area, and attempted to gain the support of the army, but his strength in the area was devastated by the defection of Legio II Parthica to Elagabalus' cause.[7] Thus, when both sides met in combat in the Battle of Antioch, Macrinus had only his Praetorian Guard cohorts, facing two full legions and additional rebels.[8] While the battle initially favoured Macrinus, with the legions attempting to flee, they were rallied by the actions of Elagabalus, who threatened to charge the enemy alone if needed. This renewed the fighting spirit of the legions, and the Praetorians were rapidly killed, or won over with promises that they would be able to retain their status if they defected. Macrinus fled, intending to go to Rome to gather support against the rebellion.[9] He was captured and executed, in late 218.[10]

Rule of Elagabalus[edit]

Despite the victory of Elagabalus over Macrinus, he still had to defeat the usurpers who had risen in opposition to him, among them were Seius Carus, Castinus, Verus, and Gellius Maximus.[11] Elagabalus succeeded in defeating all, and, despite his lack of political acumen, and his unwillingness to compromise his religious beliefs with the cultural, political or religious customs of Rome, he managed to rule from 218–222.[12] Elagabalus incensed the public when he replaced Jupiter with the god Elagabalus, making him head god, and himself head priest.[13] In 221, Maesa came to realize that Elagabalus' continued rule posed a threat to her plans, as he continually lost the support of every influential group, including the Praetorian Guard, who would later assassinate him. Maesa chose Alexander to be his replacement, and pressured Elagabalus to appoint Alexander as caesar. Elagabalus did so, although notably he granted him lesser imperium, and did not grant him Tribunician powers.[14] He also adopted Alexander, although Elagabalus was only five years older than Alexander, and renamed him from Marcus Julius Gessius Bassianus Alexianus to Marcus Aurelius Alexander, changing his cognomen from Alexianus to Alexander. It was at this point that Alexander adopted the toga virilis, being recognized as a man by the Roman state.[15]

After this point, imperial propaganda referred to Alexander as the son of Elagabalus, and only the grandson of Caracalla. On 10 July 221, Alexander was made a member of the sodales Antoniniana priesthood, augmenting his role as a religious leader. It was also declared that Elagabalus and Alexander would share the consulship of 222 together.[16] Elagabalus appears to try to make Alexander only an honorary caesar, with no legal power attached. This largely failed, as the public, and the governing class, were either unaware, or chose to ignore, the limits on Alexander's power, with some even proclaiming him to be a co-augustus.[17] At around this time, Mamaea, Alexander's mother, in concert with Maesa, began to prepare Alexander for the throne. She withdrew him from his priestly positions, so that he could be educated both politically and culturally as a Roman. This was likely done because, as Elagabalus' oriental origins and customs led many to despise him, it would be extremely beneficial for Alexander to act as a proper Roman, so that the population would not similarly despise him.[18] Mamaea and Maesa begin to actively work to transfer the loyalties of what few influential still supported Elagabalus to Alexander, and win the support of the rest. The Praetorian Guards were rapidly won over to Alexander. They began to fear that Elagabalus was plotting against the boy, and thus watched closely over him. Elagabalus indeed attempted to crack down, having most of Alexander's tutors removed, some exiled, such as Ulpian, and some even executed, such as Silvanus, all charged with "corrupting the caesar". Elagabalus began to bribe his own Praetorian Guards, however many remained resolutely loyal to Alexander.[19]

After this, Elagabalus commanded the Senate to revoke the status of caesar from Alexander. Despite the fact that the Emperor's demand held force of law, as ever since the lex de imperio Vespasiani was passed, the Senate was the ultimate source of authority, however the Emperor held unlimited power permanently once it was granted by the Senate, despite the fact that the senators risked being accused of the crime of majestas (treason), and despite the fact that senatorial voting had become a mere formality ever since the mid 2nd century, with most requests of the emperors being passed in a single vote, without discussion, Elagabalus' demand was met only with stony silence. The refusal of the senators to revoke Alexander's role of caesar was likely due to the influence of Maesa, as much as it was due to the senators own intense hatred for Elagabalus. Many senators felt that Maesa, Mamaea, and Alexander together held more influence than Elagabalus did, and chose to back Alexander. Elagabalus was ignorant of his rapidly weakening position, and rather than attempting to consolidate power, chose to take an underhanded offensive against Alexander.[20] Elagabalus attempted to have Alexander murdered, promising lavish rewards to the courtiers of Imperial Palace if they would kill Alexander.[21] Elagabalus ordered his few loyal Praetorian Guards to remove Alexander's name from their standards, to cover his statues with mud, and to have Alexander's guards disbanded. Elagabalus then traveled to the Gardens of Spes Vetus to stay, to give himself an alibi. However, the vast body of the Praetorian Guards were loyal to Alexander, and, upon seeing his statues covered in mud, rushed to the palace to ensure Alexander's safety, with another group hurrying to the Gardens of Spes Vetus, to kill Elagabalus. Upon reaching the palace, they took Alexander, Mamaea and Maesa into protective custody, bringing them to the Praetorian Camp.[22]

The Praetorian Guard was stopped from killing Elagabalus at the Gardens of Spes Vetus only by their Praetorian Prefects, by reminding the Praetorians of their sacramentum, their sacred oath to protect the emperor above all else, the breaking of which was considered a crime against the gods. The Praetorians thus brought Elagabalus back to the Praetorian Camp. At the Praetorian Camp, a riot had erupted, consisting of Praetorians loyal to Alexander, demanding that Elagabalus explain his actions.[23] The Praetorians then made demands of Elagabalus, the first of which was that his amici (courtiers) that were of lowly status, or encouraged his licentious lifestyle, were to be dismissed, including Hierocles, a charioteer and lover of Elagabalus. The second was that Alexander was to be restored his imperial guard, and recognized as caesar. Elagabalus quickly rejected his agreement, refusing to acknowledge Alexander as his caesar.[24] The dispute came to a head on 11 March 222, when Elagabalus spread rumors that Alexander was seriously ill, and near death. The rumor backfired, because the Praetorians assumed that Elagabalus had poisoned him. They refused to leave the Praetorian camp, demanding Elagabalus appear at the shrine of Mars located in the Praetorian camp, alongside Alexander. The demanded location, the shrine of Mars, who was the Roman god of war, was both a veiled threat, and an insult against Elagabal's promotion to chief god by Elagabalus. Elagabalus followed the demands, and symbolically placed Alexander beside him on the imperial litter, taking him to the camp. Despite the overture of placing Alexander beside him, symbolising that he recognized him as caesar, if not co-augustus, the Praetorian Guardsmen had lost all trust in Elagabalus by this point, due to his refusal to follow through with promises made to them earlier.[25]

Upon their arrival at the camp, the Praetorians greeted Alexander, but ignored Elagabalus entirely, which quickly sent Elagabalus into a rage. Modern historians have noted that Herodian uses the word "acclaimed", suggesting that the Praetorians were declaring Alexander the true emperor, which would explain why Elagabalus was thrown into rage so rapidly. The imperial party stayed overnight, during which Elagabalus ordered the arrest of the Praetorians who were overly supportive of Alexander, an order which was surprisingly carried out, although it would have little effect. Tensions between the Praetorians and Elagabalus continued to rise, although unlike the previous occasion, this time the Praetorian Prefects made no attempt to intercede. Elagabalus and Soamias came to realize they were little more than captives, and conspired to escape. They prepared for Elagabalus to hide in a chest, which would be carried out of the camp. However, their plot was discovered, and both Elagabalus and Soamias were killed by the Praetorian Guard, on 12 March 222. The Praetorians then went on a rampage, executing the amici of Elagabalus, along with both Praetorian Prefects, and other high level officials who were loyal to Elagabalus. The cause of the insurrection are disputed. Herodian and Dio both say that the killing of Elagabalus was spontaneous, but the Historia Augusta says that the revolt was planned in advance. The Historia Augusta is considered somewhat reliable during this part of its narrative of Roman history, but most modern scholars trust Herodian and Dio over the work of an unknown author, which later on becomes very unreliable.[26]

Reign[edit]

History[edit]

Alexander was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard that same day, on 11 March 222, in the center of the Praetorian Camp.[27] The Feriale Duranum gives his date of ascension as 13 March, which has led modern historians to believe that although the Praetorians and Senate declared him emperor on 11 March, it was not until order could be restored, on 13 March, that Alexander was officially bestowed with his imperial titles by the Senate.[28] The meeting itself is unmentioned by Herodian and Dio, with only the Historia Augusta, which is by this point unreliable, giving an account of the meeting. According to it, the Senate bestowed upon Alexander the titles of Augustus (Emperor), Pater Patriae (Father of his Country), and Pontifex Maximus (Chief High Priest). The Historia Augusta is alone in saying that Elagabalus and his mother Soamias suffered a damnatio memoriae (Meaning they were erased from Roman history), but this claim is verified by epigraphic evidence.[29] Because Elagabalus had been officially erased from history, Alexander was able to yet again assert that he was the illegitimate son of Caracalla. In an effort to gain favor, Alexander issued amnesty to those condemned by Elagabalus.[30]

Due to his young age of 13, Alexander was controlled by his mother Mamaea, who had largely taken over from Maesa, due to Maesa's failing health.[31] In order to gain favor and support, Alexander reinstated or promoted several officials who had been stripped of their post under Elagabalus, among them the future emperor Gordian I.[32] In an effort to boost legitimacy, a council of 16 of the most respected and dignified senators was created, to advise Alexander.[33] Maesa died sometime between 224 and 227. The uncertainty of her death comes from various sources: Herodian gives her death as before 225, the Feriale Duranum first mentions a deified Maesa in 227, meaning that she must have been dead by that time, as Roman deification took place only after death, and the Acta Fratrum Arvalium does not mention her in their list of gods the Arval Brethren sacrificed to on 7 November 224, meaning that she must have been alive at least until this point. After the death of Maesa, only Mamaea remained to exert control over Alexander, although Alexander was increasingly independent by this time.[34] In 225, Alexander married Sallustia Orbiana, the daughter of an influential senator named Seius Sallustius, likely in order to further cement relations between himself and the Senate.[35] Sallustius was made caesar, although this was likely an honorary title only, perhaps indicating that he would serve as regent alongside Mamaea if Alexander were to die during the minority of his prospective heir.[36]


[36]

Economic policy[edit]

When Alexander ascended the throne, the Roman economy had long been in a state of peril, starting with the Antonine Plague, which was brought back after Emperor Lucius Verus's successful campaign against Parthia. Septimius Severus and Caracalla massively increased the wages of the soldiers, raising expenditures enormously. Macrinus' overthrowal was due in part to his brave, but foolish, attempt to reign in expenditures by way of cutting the military's pay, which led to his overthrowal.[37] Alexander attempted to take a middle path, neither attempting to cut the pay of the military, nor raising it, giving an expense of about 286–370 million denarii.[38] This worked initially, however the military, which had grown used to wages being raised constantly, became upset with Alexander when he did not do so, which slowly eroded their support for him.[37]

Alexander was also troubled by the issue of the huge inflation of Roman coinage, which had been debased by every emperor from Lucius Verus to Caracalla.[37] The Roman population experienced a huge decline of confidence in the coinage, due to the decreases in precious content of the coins. Alexander attempted to confront this fall of confidence by refusing further debasement, maintaining an exchange rate of one aureus to 25 denarii, even though debasing it further would have helped assuage the huge budgetary problems he was facing.[39]

Politics[edit]

The rule of Severus Alexander was characterized by a return to Augustan Principles, or at least a facade of it.[40] Much of this involved attempting to improve relations with the ruling class. On 11 April 223, a rescript was issued, which limited the abilities of delatores (denouncers). Previously, a delatore could allege treason, called majestas by the Romans, against someone, and would receive half of their assets and wealth if that person was convicted, with the other half going to the Fiscus (Imperial treasury). Because of this law, there was a huge financial incentive to denounce the rich, which was largely made up by the ruling class, in order to receive the money.The issues rescript drastically changed the laws, limiting both the accusations and prosecutions. One noted restriction was that judges who refused to follow an imperial ruling were no longer considered guilty of majestas. Around this time, another rescript was passed, which banned the execution of senators.[41]

While these laws seemed to re-assert the rights of the nobles, the reality was that very little had changed. Although Alexander Severus, in a letter written to the city of Aphrodisias, says that a city having its rights taken away was "foreign to the guardianship [extended to all in my] rule", the emperor remained above the law.[42] A rescript to this effect was written during Alexander Severus' reign, stating: "the law conferring imperial power exempts the emperor from the formalities of the law". This is said more succinctly in another rescript: "Whatever the emperor has decided has force of law". The tradition created by the lex de imperio Vespasiani was retained, that the imperial powers, once granted by the senate, gave the emperor the power to institute laws without the consultation or approval of the Senate. The word of the emperor was law, and thus the decisions of the emperor, made either through rescripts, edicts, or decrees, were placed in the statute books without Senatorial ratification.[43]

References[edit]

Primary sources[edit]

Citations[edit]

  1. ^ a b c McHugh 2017, p. 23.
  2. ^ McHugh 2017, pp. 23–24.
  3. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 34.
  4. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 45.
  5. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 46.
  6. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 47.
  7. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 50.
  8. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 51.
  9. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 52.
  10. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 53.
  11. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 59.
  12. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 60.
  13. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 61.
  14. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 70.
  15. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 71.
  16. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 72.
  17. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 73.
  18. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 74.
  19. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 76.
  20. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 77.
  21. ^ McHugh 2017, pp. 77–78.
  22. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 78.
  23. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 79.
  24. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 80.
  25. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 82.
  26. ^ a b c d McHugh 2017, p. 83.
  27. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 85.
  28. ^ a b McHugh 2017, p. 86.
  29. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 87.
  30. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 88.
  31. ^ McHugh 2017, pp. 88–89.
  32. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 92.
  33. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 93.
  34. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 130.
  35. ^ McHugh 2017, pp. 132–133.
  36. ^ a b McHugh 2017, p. 134.
  37. ^ a b c McHugh 2017, p. 101.
  38. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 137.
  39. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 138.
  40. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 102.
  41. ^ McHugh 2017, pp. 107–108.
  42. ^ McHugh 2017, pp. 108–109.
  43. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 109.
  44. ^ McHugh 2017, p. 24.

Bibliography[edit]

  • McHugh, John S. (2017). Emperor Alexander Severus: Rome's Age of Insurrection, AD222-235. Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1473845817.
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