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Crocodile Oil[edit]
Crocodile oil is obtained from the fatty tissues of crocodiles. Crocodile fat is a product of commercial farming, evident in Thailand. Historically, for centuries crocodile oil has been used by traditional practitioners across the globe, including Chinese Traditional Medicine, Southeast Asia, Ancient Egypt. Crocodile oil was found to be used since the 19th century for different purposes in different cultures [1]. Due to the oil’s components, its richness in monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, it is now commonly used as ointment for treatment of skin conditions, skin structure enhancement, collagen deposition, and medicine for illnesses [2]. There are also criticisms that arise from the use of crocodile oil as there is an increased demand for cruelty-free and vegan-friendly beauty products in consumers of today’s society.
History[edit]
Crocodile oil was recorded to have been used by traditional practitioners for centuries in treatment of ailments, skin conditions and illnesses such as cancer [3]. In Ancient Egyptian medicine, crocodile oil was used in a liniment to stimulate the growth of hair, to treat bald patches also called Alopecia as well as prevent growth of grey hair [4]. Crocodile oil was recognised by the Ancient Egyptians to treat burns when combined with other components such as Egyptian Goat fat and lion fat [4]. Crocodile oil was also used by the Egyptians to help with trembling in limbs when smeared with other components including honey, olive oil [4]. The Papyrus Ebers mentions Egyptians medicine recommends the creation of a vaginal contraceptive solution composed of crocodile oil, gum acacia or honey, and natron [4]. The Historical Table of the Materia Media reports crocodile oil use in Egyptian Medicine in creating the ointment with combination of "slime of the nile", frictions of crocodile fat in rheumatism, salt, alum, platters[5].
Crocodile oil has been used by Indian Medicine in the 19th century mentions the use of crocodile oil due to the oil natural properties for treatment of burns[6]. They also reported other uses of crocodile such as its fat, meat and skin [6]. The use of crocodile oil in India is also recorded in other journals, more specifically, the oil is prepared by the Sanif tribe who eats crocodile fat, located in Panjab[7]. They state crocodile oil contains larger amounts of "solidifiable fat" than any fish oil [7]. The journal also mentions the oil to be procurable in abundance in Agra[7]. Similarly, a journal from the University of Illinois, published by Royal Society of Arts in 1879 discussed the commercial value of crocodile oil as well as how the oil was used in the 19th century specifically in Agra, India [8]. A Western researcher examined that crocodile oil contained larger proportion of solid fat either cod liver or fish oils. They softened the quality of various animal oils on leather and found leather treated with crocodile oil remained stiffer compared to other natural oils. Melted fat of crocodile or crocodile oil was also recorded to be used for "gastric obstructions"[9]. In addition, a journal dated in 1886 also refers to the use of crocodile oil in Germany for leather dressing, prepared in Punjaub and solidified at 33 degrees [10].
Chinese traditional medicine as well as Southeast Asian medicine uses crocodile oil and products as ointments for burns and scalds [11]. A study tested burn wound-healing efficacy of crocodile oil through a Chinese herbal medicine called crocodile oil burn ointment, consisting of crocodile oil, natural mineral and extraction of other herbal medicines by employing second-degree burns in rats and found crocodile oil enhances burn wound healing capabilities [12]. Chinese traditional medicine uses the oil of crocodiles for other conditions such as bronchitis, allergy, skin problems, high blood pressure and cancer [13]. Crocodile oil is also prescribed to treat burns, skin ulcers and cancer, coughs and asthma in Madagascar [13][14]. There is also evidence of crocodile oil being used traditionally in South Africa for skin condition treatments including eczema, rashes and promoting wound healing [3]. The oil is used for treatment of illnesses such as asthma, emphysema, and influenza in other countries, evidently Mexico [3].
Composition[edit]
The following table provides information about the composition of the fatty acids in crocodile oil:
| Fatty acid | % Methylated content |
|---|---|
| Undedecanoate | 0.139±0.092 |
| Tridecanoate | 0.017±0.006 |
| Myristate | 1.156±0.167 |
| Pentadecanoate | 0.250±0.000 |
| Palmitoleate | 3.138±0.231 |
| Palmitate | 15.436±1.038 |
| Heptadecanoate | 0.476±0.054 |
| Linoleate | 4.031±0.776 |
| Linolelaidic | 0.161±0.093 |
| Oleate | 19.593 ±1.764 |
| Elaidate | 0.205±0.086 |
| Stearate | 1.359±0.738 |
| Eicosenoate | 0.051±0.024 |
| Arachidate | 0.002±0.002 |
| Erucate | <0.001 |
| Lignoceric acid | 1.339±0.675 |
The table below compares acid in crocodile oil and human skin oil:
| Crocodile oil % | Human Skin Oil % | |
|---|---|---|
| Palmitoleic acid (omega-7) | 6.00% | 3.80 |
| Palmitic acid | 23.00 | 20.20 |
| Myristic acid | 0.94 | 2.10 |
| Stearic acid | 6.00 | 11.20 |
| Oleic acid (omega-9) | 39.00 | 30.80 |
| Linoleic acid (omega-6) | 20.00 | 15.10 |
| lpha linoleic acid (omega-3) | 1.37 | 0.30 |
Evaluation of use[edit]
Skin Condition[edit]
Crocodile oil has been used by traditional practitioners to treat skin conditions including microbial infections and inflammatory conditions. A research conducted describes the burn wound healing capabilities in crocodile oil indicated by decrease in wound closure time [12]. The study found crocodile oil has wound healing activity, and reduced scar formation in rats [12]. The fatty acid profile of crocodile oil indicates that the oil consists mainly of fatty acids that possess antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties [3]. A research provides scientific evidence of the antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties of crocodile oil, compared the use of crocodile oil by traditional healers [12].
The fatty acid profile of crocodile oil indicates that the oil consists mainly of fatty acids that possess antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties (Kabara et al., 1972, Maroon and Bost, 2006). This study provides novel scientific evidence of the antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties of crocodile oil, justifying its use by traditional healers. Subsequent studies may be directed towards the investigation of the mechanisms of action of the antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities of crocodile oil and its fatty acids. A clinical study tested the positive claims of crocodile oil in treatment of ageing skin in comparison to placebo lotion [2]. They found crocodile oil had "good stability over 6 months period", both lotions showed an increase in skin hydration [2].
The treatment of ageing skin has become very popular over the last decade. Ageing skin is characterised by wrinkles, sagging skin and decreased laxicity. As a result, crocodile oil has been used for skin repair to assist in skin quality and appearance as well as skin conditions due to its fatty acids and properties. According to Croc City, Crocodile oil and crocodile oil containing products currently on the market, are used for treatment of dermatitis, scrapes, acne, razor bumps, bed sores, haemorrhoids and anal fissures as well as alleviation of pain and inflammation of arthritic conditions, yreatment of discolorations and pigmentation of skin-like brown spots, freckles and menopausal darkening, treatment of dry, flaky, itchy and ageing skin, nappy rash, athlete’s feet, jock-itch and irritation of head skin [15].
Commercial use[edit]
With the increase in commercial alligator farming in countries including Thailand, the United States, Australia, South Africa and South East Asia, crocodile fat and oil became a commercial product that can be used in a number of ways such as medicine, skin care products and as a feedstock for biodiesel. Natural oils are extensively used in cosmetics and as treatment for a growing number of conditions. According to Vermaak, the natural products industry is a multibillion dollar industry and has grown enormously in the past few years[16]. Crocodile oil as an oil mainly containing fatty acids contribute to beneficial properties in cosmetics and personal care products. More specifically, crocodile oil is also used in the tanning industry[17]. The oil can range from about $US4 for a tube of crocodile lip balm to about $US104 for a large jar of pure crocodile oil balm [18]. Businesses consider the capability to convert crocodile fat to a marketable oil. They can capitalise on “first-mover advantage” due to crocodile oil benefits. The Asian skin care products uses animal ingredients such as emu oil, snail slime, however, crocodile oil contains antimicrobial and anti-fungal properties [19]. As a result. crocodile oil lotions and other products derived from crocodile fat can be seen sold online for commercial use.
Criticism[edit]
| Siamese crocodile | |
|---|---|
| |
| Siamese crocodile at Moscow Zoo | |
Scientific classification 
| |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Reptilia |
| Clade: | Archosauromorpha |
| Clade: | Archosauriformes |
| Order: | Crocodilia |
| Family: | Crocodylidae |
| Genus: | Crocodylus |
| Species: | C. siamensis
|
| Binomial name | |
| Crocodylus siamensis Schneider, 1801
| |
| |
Critics of crocodile farming mentions the use of crocodile oil as a contribution to the diminishing numbers of crocodile species [21]. Many species of crocodile are endangered such as the Siamese crocodile [22]. According to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, products made from endangered species can be legally traded after certification [23]. Crocodile farming critic, Deniz Devrim Tosun mentioned that crocodiles are hunted for their skins, meat, oil and claws[24]. Over catching of this animal has led to the decline of this species in wild populations. Efforts are made to preserve the exisiting habitat of this species [17]. Breeding this animal under captivity is a developing industry in some parts of the world. Crocodiles have been bred in farms since early 20th century. Thai crocodile farming industry is currently the largest in the world [23].
- ^ Williams, W (1878). "Journal of the Society for Arts". Journal of the Society for Arts. 27: 1357.
- ^ a b c d Venter, Telanie (1985). Characterisation, toxicology and clinical effects of crocodile oil in skin products. OCLC 865165937.
- ^ a b c d e Buthelezi, Sithabile; Southway, Colin; Govinden, Usha; Bodenstein, Johannes; du Toit, Karen (2012). "An investigation of the antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities of crocodile oil". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 143 (1): 325–330. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2012.06.040. ISSN 0378-8741.
- ^ a b c d Smith, Grafton Elliot; Bryan, Cyril P.; Joachim, H. (1937). Ancient Egyptian Medicine. S.l.: The Papyrus Ebers.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) - ^ Pereira, Jonathan, "Preface to Part II. of Vol. II", The Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics, Cambridge University Press, pp. iii–vi, ISBN 978-1-107-10988-9, retrieved 2020-05-19
- ^ a b Elliot, Henry Miers, "NOTICE OF SIR HENRY M. ELLIOT", The History of India, as Told by its Own Historians, Cambridge University Press, pp. xxviii–xxix, ISBN 978-1-139-50713-4, retrieved 2020-04-16
- ^ a b c Watt, George; Watt, George, "PREFACE TO VOL. V", A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, Cambridge University Press, pp. vi–vii, ISBN 978-1-107-23918-0, retrieved 2020-05-19
- ^ Williams, W. (1878). Journal of the Society for Arts, Vol. 27, no. 1357. The Journal of the Society of Arts, 27(1362), 75-82.
- ^ Eve, Paul (1964-02). "Southern Medical and Surgical Journal". Southern Medical and Surgical Journal. 57 (2). P.C.Guieu: 234. doi:10.1097/00007611-196402000-00021. ISSN 0038-4348.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Cameron, James (1886). "Oils and Varnishes". Nature. 34 (871): 213–214. doi:10.1038/034213b0. ISSN 0028-0836.
- ^ Sanders, Richard (2018), "Chinese Ecological Agriculture: Shengtai Nongye", Prospects for Sustainable Development in the Chinese Countryside, Routledge, pp. 66–76, ISBN 978-1-315-20486-4
- ^ a b c d Li, Hua-Liang; Deng, Yi-Tao; Zhang, Zi-Ran; Fu, Qi-Rui; Zheng, Ya-Hui; Cao, Xing-Mei; Nie, Jing; Fu, Li-Wen; Chen, Li-Ping; Xiong, You-Xiong; Shen, Dong-Yan (2016-11-23). "EVALUATION OF EFFECTIVENESS IN A NOVEL WOUND HEALING OINTMENT-CROCODILE OIL BURN OINTMENT". African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative medicines. 14 (1): 62–72. doi:10.21010/ajtcam.v14i1.8. ISSN 0189-6016.
- ^ a b Higgins, Vaughan; Bryant, Melanie; Howell, Andrea; Battersby, Jane (2017). "Ordering adoption: Materiality, knowledge and farmer engagement with precision agriculture technologies". Journal of Rural Studies. 55: 193–202. doi:10.1016/j.jrurstud.2017.08.011. ISSN 0743-0167.
- ^ Snyder, Trish. (2006). Alligator & crocodile rescue : changing the future for endangered wildlife. Firefly. ISBN 1-55297-920-2. OCLC 416506887.
- ^ "Croc City Crocodile & Reptile Park". Retrieved 2020-05-19.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ Vermaak, I.; Kamatou, G.P.P.; Komane-Mofokeng, B.; Viljoen, A.M.; Beckett, K. (2011-10). "African seed oils of commercial importance — Cosmetic applications". South African Journal of Botany. 77 (4): 920–933. doi:10.1016/j.sajb.2011.07.003. ISSN 0254-6299.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ a b Kamath, Anjali (2009). Animals in Danger. Brainworks.
- ^ "Move over, coconut oil! Crocodile oil is the latest skincare trend". TODAY.com. Retrieved 2020-05-19.
- ^ Christy, Ralph D., editor. Bernardo, Joselito C., editor. Hampel-Milagrosa, Aimée, editor. Fu, Lin, 1984- editor. Asian agribusiness management : case studies in growth, marketing, and upgrading strategies. ISBN 978-981-323-313-3. OCLC 1029789547.
{{cite book}}:|last=has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Bezuijen, M.; Simpson, B.; Behler, N.; Daltry, J.; Tempsiripong, Y. (2012). "Crocodylus siamensis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2012: e.T5671A3048087. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2012.RLTS.T5671A3048087.en.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|last-author-amp=ignored (|name-list-style=suggested) (help) Listed as Critically Endangered (CR A2cd v3.1) - ^ "Crocodile farms: is it cruel to keep these wild creatures captive?". The Independent. 2006-10-05. Retrieved 2020-05-19.
- ^ "Nearly 400 Rare Baby Crocodiles Saved from Becoming Purses". National Geographic News. 2016-08-07. Retrieved 2020-04-16.
- ^ a b Christy, Ralph D., editor. Bernardo, Joselito C., editor. Hampel-Milagrosa, Aimée, editor. Fu, Lin, 1984- editor. Asian agribusiness management : case studies in growth, marketing, and upgrading strategies. ISBN 978-981-323-314-0. OCLC 1050613726.
{{cite book}}:|last=has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ TOSUN, Deniz D (2013). "CROCODILE FARMING AND ITS PRESENT STATE IN GLOBAL AQUACULTURE". Journal of FisheriesSciences.com. doi:10.3153/jfscom.2013005. ISSN 1307-234X.