User:Eab45/sandbox

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Wasmannian mimicry[edit]

Wasmannian mimicry occurs when two species live in close proximity with one another. The mimic then models various features of the model this can include chemical mimicry or mimicry of morphological features [1]. Many Wasmmanian mimics also exhibit Batesian and chemical mimicry.

Mimicry by Parastoid Wasps[edit]

Lasius Niger

Gelis Agilis (Ichneumonidae) share many similarities with the ant Lasius niger. G. agilis is a wingless parasitoid wasp which exhibits multi-trait mimicry of garden ants [2]. While it is quite common for species to mimic both morphological and behavioural characteristics of their model ants, G. agilis is distinctive as it also exhibits chemical mimicry as an anti-predator strategy. It is unusual for mimics to converge on multiple traits[2]. Additionally chemical mimicry is thought to be a less common form of mimicry in general [2][3]. In addition to Batesian mimicry, the relationship between G. agilis and the black garden wasp also demonstrates Wasmannian mimicry as the two organisms live in close proximity of each other[2]. G.agilis mimics the body size, locomotion and other morphological features of its model ant. Additionally, when threatened it also releases a toxic chemical which is similar to the ant like alarm pheromone produced by the garden ant. This multi trait mimicry serves to protect G. agilis from ground predators such as wolf spiders.[4]

Camponotus Planatus Mimicked by Four Different Arthropods[edit]

Four species of arthropods mimic the ant Camponotus Planatus within the Mountain Pine Ridge of British Honduras [5]. This is a unique example of ant mimicry as it is unusual for four different species to mimic the same ant model. In addition to Baetsian mimicry, this is also an example of Wassmanian mimicry as these species live within 15 km of each other[5]. The first mimic is the clubnoid spider (Mymectoypus Fulignous), this spider mimics C. planatus in various ways including morphology and behaviour. Secondly, the salticid spider Sarindia Linda mimics C. Planatus extremely well, moving S. Linda resemble their model so well they are hard to distinguish from C. Planatus. S. linda mimics the locomotion patterns, pumping of the abdomen, and movements in antenna, females of this species often use their forward legs to walk and their second pair of hind legs to mimic the antenna of C. Planatus [5]. The third mimic is a Mirid bug (Baberiella) which mimics the model in both gait and antennal mimicry. Finally, the mantid, Mantodia maya (Sasussuri and Zehnter) also uses C. Planatus as a model[5]. Individuals that mimic C. Planatus are typically 3-9mm long and are considered to be one of the most conspicuous ants of the Mountain Pine Ridge, hence, predators tend to avoid them. They forage on both leaf litter and shrub debris. All four mimics have been seen foraging in areas with their model with no interference. [6].

Article Evaluation (Mate Choice)[edit]

Content[edit]

  • The introduction of this article provided a clear direction of how the rest of the article would explain various aspects of mate choice. Although there were some issues with sourcing/citations in this section, the overall flow and direction of the introduction was easy to follow. Additionally, the article was organized well into appropriate headings and subheadings.
  • I also liked the subheading titled "criticism", it is important to include information that is relevant to the topic however, it is equally as important to recognize that different theories and experiments also have limitations.
  • There seemed to be some issues with the quality of writing and word choice throughout the article. Word choice plays a crucial role in conveying thoughts/ideas to the reader. Here are some examples of poor word choice in this article:
    • Repeated use of the word "choosey" to explain that females are the more selective sex with regards to choosing a mate. This word could be replaced with different word (like selective). Additionally, there is a definition of choosey in brackets in the introduction of the article. By picking a different word, it may be possible to link it to another wikipage to promote further understanding of the concept.
    • The use of the phrase "In a study done on" could be replaced with a more articulate phrase such as "In an experiment coducted by..." or "A study involving great reed warblers the results suggested that females should gain evolutionary advantage".
  • Some sections of the article could benefit from the addition of new information. For example, the section regarding mating strategies refers solely to humans and short-term and long-term mating stratagies. It is important that the content of the article is balanced. Since a large part of the article is about non-human animals, I feel it is also important to include some mating strategies for other animals.
  • Additionally, the article could benefit from some images or diagrams. The introduction includes a few photographs, however, the rest of the article is lacking in terms of figures. Figures can help to clarify and solidify information for readers.

Sourcing[edit]

  • Another area that could use improvement is the sourcing/citations in the article. One issue that seems to be consistent throughout the article is only including one citation near the end of the paragraph. There are multiple paragraphs with only one citation at the very end. It is important to incorporate citations throughout the paragraph. Not every sentence must have its own citation, however, only using one at the very end its not sufficient.
  • There are also many claims throughout tie article that should be supported with appropriate citations. Here are some examples of claims that could use citation:
    • When listing the five mechanisms of how mate choice evolved over time (in the introduction), citation is needed.
    • The sentence "Other factors that can influence mate choice are pathogen stress and map histocompatibility", without a citation this leaves the reader guessing the accuracy of the claim
    • "Two types of fitness benefits (direct and indirect) are thought to drive the evolutionary mechanisms of mate choice", This needs a citation as it us unclear who thought that two types of benefits dive evolutionary mechanisms of mate choice.
  • Although there are a number of citations, many references to books contain broken or unavailable links

Choosing Possible Topics[edit]

Ant Mimicry[edit]

  • Adding in some specific examples, especially in regards to ant mimicry in particular species of spiders
  • transformational mimicry
  • effects of mimicry on predation
  • reasons for mimicry

Sources:

http://research.haifa.ac.il/~biology/simcha/Publications/I103.pdf

https://academic.oup.com/ee/article-abstract/40/5/1223/418693

http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/278/1710/1356.short

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4306968/https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2424528.pdf?

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https://www-scopus-com.qe2a-proxy.mun.ca/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85053455091&origin=resultslist&sort=plf-f&src=s&st1=%22Ant+Mimicry%22&st2=&sid=aa09ce4e2e2a20c2fe0adc9ca3320610&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=28&s=TITLE-ABS-KEY%28%22Ant+Mimicry%22%29&relpos=0&citeCnt=0&searchTerm=

https://www-scopus-com.qe2a-proxy.mun.ca/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85021304437&origin=resultslist&sort=plf-f&src=s&st1=%22Ant+Mimicry%22&st2=&sid=aa09ce4e2e2a20c2fe0adc9ca3320610&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=28&s=TITLE-ABS-KEY%28%22Ant+Mimicry%22%29&relpos=7&citeCnt=0&searchTerm=

Lingual Luring[edit]

  • examples of species that use lingual luring
  • benefits of lingual luring

Feedback[edit]

Both of these topics sound like good choices, I look forward to the final project.

Ant mimicry[edit]

Article being expanded: Ant Mimicry

Lead Section[edit]

Ant mimicry or myrmecomorphy is mimicry of ants by other organisms. Ants are abundant all over the world, and potential predators that rely on vision to identify their prey, such as birds and wasps, normally avoid them, because they are either unpalatable or aggressive [7]. Particularly, spiders are the most common mimic of ants [8][7].Additionally, some arthropods mimic ants to escape predation (protective mimicry), while others mimic ants anatomically and behaviourally to hunt ants, this is known as aggressive mimicry.

When a mimic and model live in habitats near each other, this is known as Wasmannian mimicry[9]. Wasmannian mimics may also demonstrate other types of mimicry such as Batesian mimicry, or aggressive mimicry. To overcome ants' powerful defences, mimics may imitate ants chemically with ant-like pheromones, visually (as in Batesian mimicry), for aggressive purposes or by copying microstructure for tactile mimicry.

Spiders[edit]

Mymarchne[edit]

Over 300 spider species mimic the social behaviours, morphological features and predatory behaviour of ants[7]. Fourteen genra of Salticidae exhibit ant mimicry and

Ant-mimicry of a Jumping spider (Diolenius phrynoides) (5356424922)

is considered to be the best studied genus.The jumping spider genus Mymarchne are batesian mimics which resemble the morphological and behavioural properties of ants to near perfection. These spiders mimic the behavioural features of ants such as adapting their zig-zag locomotion pattern, and the act of creating an antennal illusion by waving their first or second pair of legs in the air [7]. Additionally, the slender and slim appearance of these spiders make them more agile which serves as a benefit, allowing them to easily escape from predators. Studies on this genus of jumping spiders have revealed important insights regarding the major selection force that has resulted in the evolution of ant mimicry in spiders. Ant avoidance by predators has been considered a major selective agent which has driven the evolution of ant mimicry in spiders [7][8]. This is attributed largely to the fact that spider wasps hunt spiders using visual cues and avoid predation of ants [10]. Although visual predators who avoid ants may have allowed for some selective pressure, some researchers suggest that ant avoidance may not be the only major selective agent. They suggest that the predation of jumping spiders is also a selective agent which led to the evolution of ant mimicry in this taxa of spiders [7]. Jumping spiders have highly acute visual systems, because of their highly sensitive visual systems they can differentiate between different prey types, including distinguishing ant mimicking spiders from ants[11][7]. This excellent visual acuity may be an additional selective force which contributed to the evolution of impeccable ant mimicry by this species.

Wasps[edit]

Wasmannian mimicry occurs when two species live in close proximity with one another. The mimic then models various features of the model this can include chemical mimicry or mimicry of morphological features [9].

Ant Mimicry by Parastoid Wasps[edit]

Lasius Niger

Gelis Agilis (Ichneumonidae) share many similarities with the ant Lasius niger. G. agilis is a wingless parasitoid wasp which exhibits multi-trait mimicry of garden ants [9]. While it is quite common for species to mimic both morphological and behavioural characteristics of their model ants, G. agilis is distinctive as it also exhibits chemical mimicry as an anti-predator strategy. It is unusual for mimics to converge on multiple traits[9]. Additionally chemical mimicry is thought to be a less common form of mimicry in general [9][12]. In addition to Batesian mimicry, the relationship between G. agilis and the black garden wasp also demonstrates Wasmannian mimicry as the two organisms

in close proximity of each other[9]. G.agilis mimics the body size, locomotion and other morphological features of its model ant. Additionally, when threatened it also releases a toxic chemical which is similar to the ant like alarm pheromone produced by the garden ant. This multi trait mimicry serves to protect G. agilis from ground predators such as wolf spiders.[13]

Plants[edit]

Ant Mimicry by Passiflora Flowers[edit]

Mimicry has evolved in certain plants as a visual anti-herbivory strategy[14].This is the case in Passiflora flowers, they have dark dots and stripes on their flowers that mimic ants and deter ant avoiding predators. Ants are numerous and act as a deterrent, herbivores often avoid consuming them and this benefits Passiflora flowers as it serves as protection, especially from damage to their reproductive organs [15]. There have been studies which focus on plants that mimic ants in order to benefit pollination processes [16]. The Passiflora flower however, is distinct in that it mimics ants for defensive purposes[15].

Camponotus Planatus Mimicked by Four Different Anthropods[edit]

Four species of arthropods mimic the ant Camponotus Planatus within the Mountain Pine Ridge of British Honduras [17]. This is a unique example of ant mimicry as it is unusual for four different species to mimic the same ant model. In addition to Baetsian mimicry, this is also an example of Wassmanian mimicry as these species live within 15 km of each other[17]. The first mimic is the clubnoid spider (Mymectoypus Fulignous), this spider mimics C. planatus in various ways including morphology and behaviour. Secondly, the salticid spider Sarindia Linda mimics C. Planatus extremely well, moving S. Linda resemble their model so well they are hard to distinguish from C. Planatus. S. linda mimics the locomotion patterns, pumping of the abdomen, and movements in antenna, females of this species often use their forward legs to walk and their second pair of hind legs to mimic the antenna of C. Planatus [17]. The third mimic is a Mirid bug (Baberiella) which mimics the model in both gait and antennal mimicry. Finally, the mantid, Mantodia maya (Sasussuri and Zehnter) also uses C. Planatus as a model[17]. Individuals that mimic C. Planatus are typically 3-9mm long and are considered to be one of the most conspicuous ants of the Mountain Pine Ridge, hence, predators tend to avoid them. They forage on both leaf litter and shrub debris. All four mimics have been seen foraging in areas with their model with no interference. [18].

Aggressive Mimicry[edit]

Aphantochilus rogersi[edit]

Aphantochilus rogersi is a spider which mimics Cephalotini ants in which they share a habitat with[18]. A. rogersi solely predate on their model. In addition to exhibiting Batesian and Wasmannian mimcry, A. rogersi demonstrates aggressive mimicry of the Cephalotini ant, this mimicry allows them to approach and prey upon their models without the risk of being attacked by the ant[18]. Additionally, A. rogersi resembles Cephalotini in many morphological features, this has lead to protection from visual predators who avoid Cephalotini, an example of Batesian mimicry.

Chemical Mimicry of Ants[edit]

Lycaenida[edit]

Many insects live in habitats with social insects which serves as an asset in obtaining food sources and receiving social benefits from ants. In order to do this, it is necessary for insects to develop strategies so that they are not recognized as an intruder by the members of the colony[19][20].It is suggested that chemical mimicry has evolved so that insects can mimic the chemical signals produced by the host species, providing them with a disguise. Chemical signals are a single or complex mixture of substances that can illicit a behavioural response by another organism [19]. Chemical mimicry is used as a tactic by Lycaenid butterfly larvae (Aloeides dentatis and Lepidochrysops ignota) who mimic the ant species Acantholepis caprensis [19].These Lycaenid mimic the brood pheromone and the alarm call of ants so they can integrate themselves into the nest. In A. dentatis the tubercles release the mimicking pheromone which elicits A. caprensis to care for the mimics as they would their own brood. In these relationships worker ants give the same preference to the Lycaenid's as they do to their own brood, demonstrating that chemical signals produced by the mimic are indistinguishable to the ant. This process is also used by larvae of the European Lycaenid species Maculinea rebeli which live in the nests of myrmica ants and feed on their ant brood.[20]

Spiders[edit]

The spider Cosmophasis bitaeniata uses chemical mimicry to be accepted by the weaver ant Oecophylla smaragdina. The spider Myrmarachne assimilis is the only Myrmarachne species that resembles the aggressive weaver ant Oecophylla smaragdina, with which it lives in close contact; it likely also uses chemical resemblance.

  1. ^ Malcicka, Miriama; Bezemer, T. Martijn; Visser, Bertanne; Bloemberg, Mark; Snart, Charles J. P.; Hardy, Ian C. W.; Harvey, Jeffrey A. (2015-01-27). "Multi-trait mimicry of ants by a parasitoid wasp". Scientific Reports. 5 (1). doi:10.1038/srep08043. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4306968. PMID 25622726.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  2. ^ a b c d Malcicka, Miriama; Bezemer, T. Martijn; Visser, Bertanne; Bloemberg, Mark; Snart, Charles J. P.; Hardy, Ian C. W.; Harvey, Jeffrey A. (2015-01-27). "Multi-trait mimicry of ants by a parasitoid wasp". Scientific Reports. 5 (1). doi:10.1038/srep08043. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4306968. PMID 25622726.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  3. ^ Lorenzi, C; Bagnères, A.G; Clement, J.L (1996). "The role of cuticular hydrocarbons in social insects: is it the same in paper-wasps". Oxford University Press: 178–189.
  4. ^ Pasteur, G (1982-11). "A Classificatory Review of Mimicry Systems". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 13 (1): 169–199. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.13.110182.001125. ISSN 0066-4162. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  5. ^ a b c d Jackson, James F.; Drummond, Boyce A. (1974). "A Batesian Ant-Mimicry Complex from the Mountain Pine Ridge of British Honduras, with an Example of Transformational Mimicry". The American Midland Naturalist. 91 (1): 248–251. doi:10.2307/2424528.
  6. ^ OLIVEIRA, PAULO S.; SAZIMA, IVAN (1984-06). "The adaptive bases of ant-mimicry in a neotropical aphantochilid spider (Araneae: Aphantochilidae)". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 22 (2): 145–155. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1984.tb01675.x. ISSN 0024-4066. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  7. ^ a b c d e f g Huang, Jin-Nan; Cheng, Ren-Chung; Li, Daiqin; Tso, I.-Min (2011-05-07). "Salticid predation as one potential driving force of ant mimicry in jumping spiders". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 278 (1710): 1356–1364. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.1896. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 3061141. PMID 20961898.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  8. ^ a b Cushing, Paula E. (1997). "Myrmecomorphy and Myrmecophily in Spiders: A Review". The Florida Entomologist. 80 (2): 165–193. doi:10.2307/3495552.
  9. ^ a b c d e f Malcicka, Miriama; Bezemer, T. Martijn; Visser, Bertanne; Bloemberg, Mark; Snart, Charles J. P.; Hardy, Ian C. W.; Harvey, Jeffrey A. (2015-01-27). "Multi-trait mimicry of ants by a parasitoid wasp". Scientific Reports. 5 (1). doi:10.1038/srep08043. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4306968. PMID 25622726.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  10. ^ Cutler, Bruce (1991-05). "Reduced predation on the antlike jumping spiderSynageles occidentalis (Araneae: Salticidae)". Journal of Insect Behavior. 4 (3): 401–407. doi:10.1007/bf01048287. ISSN 0892-7553. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  11. ^ Cross, Fiona R.; Jackson, Robert R. (2009-06-15). "Cross-modality priming of visual and olfactory selective attention by a spider that feeds indirectly on vertebrate blood". Journal of Experimental Biology. 212 (12): 1869–1875. doi:10.1242/jeb.028126. ISSN 0022-0949. PMID 19483005.
  12. ^ Lorenzi, C; Bagnères, A.G; Clement, J.L (1996). "The role of cuticular hydrocarbons in social insects: is it the same in paper-wasps". Oxford University Press: 178–189.
  13. ^ Pasteur, G (1982-11). "A Classificatory Review of Mimicry Systems". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 13 (1): 169–199. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.13.110182.001125. ISSN 0066-4162. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  14. ^ Weins, D (1978). "Mimicry in plants". Evolutionary Biology. 11: 365–403.
  15. ^ a b Lev- Yadun, Simcha (2009). "Ant mimicry by Passiflora Flowers?". Israel Journal of Entomology. 39: 159–163.
  16. ^ O’Hanlon, James C.; Holwell, Gregory I.; Herberstein, Marie E. (2014-01). "Pollinator Deception in the Orchid Mantis". The American Naturalist. 183 (1): 126–132. doi:10.1086/673858. ISSN 0003-0147. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  17. ^ a b c d Jackson, James F.; Drummond, Boyce A. (1974). "A Batesian Ant-Mimicry Complex from the Mountain Pine Ridge of British Honduras, with an Example of Transformational Mimicry". The American Midland Naturalist. 91 (1): 248–251. doi:10.2307/2424528.
  18. ^ a b c OLIVEIRA, PAULO S.; SAZIMA, IVAN (1984-06). "The adaptive bases of ant-mimicry in a neotropical aphantochilid spider (Araneae: Aphantochilidae)". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 22 (2): 145–155. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1984.tb01675.x. ISSN 0024-4066. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  19. ^ a b c Dettner, K.; Liepert, C. (1994). "Chemical mimicry and camouflage". A. Rev. Entomol. 39: 129–154.
  20. ^ a b Akino, T.; Knapp, J. J.; Thomas, J. A.; Elmes, G. W. (1999-07-22). "Chemical mimicry and host specificity in the butterfly Maculinea rebeli, a social parasite of Myrmica ant colonies". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 266 (1427): 1419–1426. doi:10.1098/rspb.1999.0796. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 1690087.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)

Peer Review from user RosieLillian[edit]

Hi,

You have written a strong article, with a great deal of appropriate scientific sources. After reading your article, I feel as though I have gained a lot of knowledge about your topic.

If I could suggest somethings that you could improve upon, they would mainly be very minor grammatical edits. For example, I noted that in the fifth line of your first paragraph you have a duplication of the word "as", also no period at the end of that sentence, and the "n" is missing in the word "insight" in that same line. There is also a similar edit that can be made in the fifth line of your last paragraph, where you have written the word "they" twice.

I would also suggest maybe adding some links within your article, for example, it may be helpful to have links for the various species that you discuss so that people can learn more about them if they desire. You article is formatted very well, I would recommend adding a view images if they are not in your original article, and if you feel that they would fit within the context.

Overall, I found your article to be informative and well written. The format was clear and easy to follow. I thought that your topic was interesting, and your point of view remained neutral.

Peer Review by eng121[edit]

Great additions!

This provides a lot of information to your topic and is presented in a clear, neutral manner. The only suggestion I have in terms of organization (although I recognize it may be this way as you are adding to an article that has subjects in a particular order) is to move the chemical mimicry section further up as it is mentioned in sections before it.

Otherwise, main edits would just include some grammatical things (missing periods, etc) and the italicization of species names. Some expansion could be made to the statement, "There have been studies which focus on plants that mimic ants in order to benefit pollination processes", this seems like an area of interest and greatly related to the topic subheading and could use some expansion.

Overall, seems like a great beginning and very well referenced.

Peer Review by Amlftwix[edit]

Hi!

You obviously did a lot of research on your topic, and the many examples you added, indefinitely added much more depth to the article. Some good things are that you have many reputable sources, and that you added completely new ideas not previously mentioned such as mimicry in plants and chemical mimicry. Another thing that I really think was well done was that you are talking about some very biology heavy topics, but portrayed it in a way that was simple to understand,

The main ways of improvement is that I would recommend adding links in some of the words to either their own articles, just in case the biological jargon is not understood be people, ie anti herbavory strategy or batesian mimicry. Other than final touches and some easy grammar fixes I do think this was really well done. Although I am not completely sure about if this is a mechanism used on Wikipedia, in normal literature species names are italicized so I would also look into that.

Overall really insightful and well done.

Ant Mimicry (Final Contributions)[edit]

Ant Mimic Spider

Ant mimicry or myrmecomorphy is mimicry of ants by other organisms. Ants are abundant all over the world, and potential predators that rely on vision to identify their prey, such as birds and wasps, normally avoid them, because they are either unpalatable or aggressive.[1] Particularly, spiders are the most common mimic of ants .Additionally, some arthropods mimic ants to escape predation (protective mimicry), while others mimic ants anatomically and behaviourally to hunt ants, this is known as aggressive mimicry.


When a mimic and model live in habitats near each other, this is known as Wasmannian mimicry[2]. Wasmannian mimics may also demonstrate other types of mimicry such as Batesian mimicry, or aggressive mimicry. To overcome ants' powerful defences, mimics may imitate ants chemically with ant-like pheromones [3] visually (as in Batesian mimicry), for aggressive purposes or by copying microstructure for tactile mimicry[1].

Batesian Mimicry[edit]

Spiders[edit]

Mymarchne[edit]

Over 300 spider species mimic the social behaviours, morphological features and predatory behaviour of ants[4]. Fourteen genra of Salticidae exhibit ant mimicry and

Ant-mimicry of a Jumping spider (Diolenius phrynoides) (5356424922)

is considered to be the best studied genus.The jumping spider genus Mymarchne are batesian mimics which resemble the morphological and behavioural properties of ants to near perfection. These spiders mimic the behavioural features of ants such as adapting their zig-zag locomotion pattern, and the act of creating an antennal illusion by waving their first or second pair of legs in the air [4]. Additionally, the slender and slim appearance of these spiders make them more agile which serves as a benefit, allowing them to easily escape from predators. Studies on this genus of jumping spiders have revealed important insights regarding the major selection force that has resulted in the evolution of ant mimicry in spiders. Ant avoidance by predators has been considered a major selective agent which has driven the evolution of ant mimicry in spiders [4][5]. This is attributed largely to the fact that spider wasps hunt spiders using visual cues and avoid predation of ants [6]. Although visual predators who avoid ants may have allowed for some selective pressure, some researchers suggest that ant avoidance may not be the only major selective agent. They suggest that the predation of jumping spiders is also a selective agent which led to the evolution of ant mimicry in this taxa of spiders [4]. Jumping spiders have highly acute visual systems, because of their highly sensitive visual systems they can differentiate between different prey types, including distinguishing ant mimicking spiders from ants[7][4]. This excellent visual acuity may be an additional selective force which contributed to the evolution of impeccable ant mimicry by this species. Although ant mimicry has benefits it also has a cost: the body of spider myrmecomorphs is much narrower than non-mimics, which reduces the number of eggs per eggsac, compared to non-mimetic spiders of similar size. They seem to compensate by laying more eggsacs in their lifetime.[8] A study of three species of (predatory) mantises suggested that they innately avoided ants as prey, and that this aversion extends to ant-mimicking Salticidae.[9]

Plants[edit]

Ant Mimicry by Passiflora Flowers[edit]

Mimicry has evolved in certain plants as a visual anti-herbivory strategy[10].This is the case in Passiflora flowers, they have dark dots and stripes on their flowers that mimic ants and deter ant avoiding predators. Ants are numerous and act as a deterrent, herbivores often avoid consuming them and this benefits Passiflora flowers as it serves as protection, especially from damage to their reproductive organs [11]. There have been studies that focus on plants that mimic ants in order to benefit pollination processes [12]. The Passiflora flower however, is distinct in that it mimics ants for defensive purposes[11].

Aggressive mimicry[edit]

Aggressive mimics are predators which resemble ants sufficiently to be able to approach their prey successfully. Some spiders, such as the Zodariidae and Myrmarachne species including Myrmarachne melanotarsa,[13] use their disguise to hunt ants. Ant hunters often do not visually resemble ants very closely.[14]

Aphantochilus rogersi[edit]

Aphantochilus rogersi is a spider which mimics Cephalotini ants in which they share a habitat with[15]. A. rogersi solely predate on their model. In addition to exhibiting Batesian and Wasmannian mimcry, A. rogersi demonstrates aggressive mimicry of the Cephalotini ant, this mimicry allows them to approach and prey upon their models without the risk of being attacked by the ant[15]. Additionally, A. rogersi resembles Cephalotini in many morphological features, this has lead to protection from visual predators who avoid Cephalotini, an example of Batesian mimicry.

Chemical mimicry[edit]

Chemical Mimicry of Ants[edit]

Lycaenida[edit]

Many insects live in habitats with social insects which serves as an asset in obtaining food sources and receiving social benefits from ants. In order to do this, it is necessary for insects to develop strategies so that they are not recognized as an intruder by the members of the colony[16][17].It is suggested that chemical mimicry has evolved so that insects can mimic the chemical signals produced by the host species, providing them with a disguise. Chemical signals are a single or complex mixture of substances that can illicit a behavioural response by another organism [16]. Chemical mimicry is used as a tactic by Lycaenid butterfly larvae (Aloeides dentatis and Lepidochrysops ignota) who mimic the ant species Acantholepis caprensis [16].These Lycaenid mimic the brood pheromone and the alarm call of ants so they can integrate themselves into the nest. In A. dentatis the tubercles release the mimicking pheromone which elicits A. caprensis to care for the mimics as they would their own brood. In these relationships worker ants give the same preference to the Lycaenid's as they do to their own brood, demonstrating that chemical signals produced by the mimic are indistinguishable to the ant. This process is also used by larvae of the European Lycaenid species Maculinea rebeli which live in the nests of myrmica ants and feed on their ant brood.[17]

Spiders[edit]

The spider Cosmophasis bitaeniata uses chemical mimicry to be accepted by the weaver ant Oecophylla smaragdina. The spider Myrmarachne assimilis is the only Myrmarachne species that resembles the aggressive weaver ant Oecophylla smaragdina, with which it lives in close contact; it likely also uses chemical resemblance.

Wasmannian mimicry[edit]

Wasmannian mimicry occurs when two species live in close proximity with one another. The mimic then models various features of the model this can include chemical mimicry or mimicry of morphological features [18]. Many Wasmmanian mimics also exhibit Batesian and chemical mimicry.

Mimicry by Parastoid Wasps[edit]

Lasius Niger

Gelis Agilis (Ichneumonidae) share many similarities with the ant Lasius niger. G. agilis is a wingless parasitoid wasp which exhibits multi-trait mimicry of garden ants [19]. While it is quite common for species to mimic both morphological and behavioural characteristics of their model ants, G. agilis is distinctive as it also exhibits chemical mimicry as an anti-predator strategy. It is unusual for mimics to converge on multiple traits[19]. Additionally chemical mimicry is thought to be a less common form of mimicry in general [19][20]. In addition to Batesian mimicry, the relationship between G. agilis and the black garden wasp also demonstrates Wasmannian mimicry as the two organisms live in close proximity of each other[19]. G.agilis mimics the body size, locomotion and other morphological features of its model ant. Additionally, when threatened it also releases a toxic chemical which is similar to the ant like alarm pheromone produced by the garden ant. This multi trait mimicry serves to protect G. agilis from ground predators such as wolf spiders.[21]

Camponotus Planatus Mimicked by Four Different Arthropods[edit]

Four species of arthropods mimic the ant Camponotus Planatus within the Mountain Pine Ridge of British Honduras [22]. This is a unique example of ant mimicry as it is unusual for four different species to mimic the same ant model. In addition to Baetsian mimicry, this is also an example of Wassmanian mimicry as these species live within 15 km of each other[22]. The first mimic is the clubnoid spider (Mymectoypus Fulignous), this spider mimics C. planatus in various ways including morphology and behaviour. Secondly, the salticid spider Sarindia Linda mimics C. Planatus extremely well, moving S. Linda resemble their model so well they are hard to distinguish from C. Planatus. S. linda mimics the locomotion patterns, pumping of the abdomen, and movements in antenna, females of this species often use their forward legs to walk and their second pair of hind legs to mimic the antenna of C. Planatus [22]. The third mimic is a Mirid bug (Baberiella) which mimics the model in both gait and antennal mimicry. Finally, the mantid, Mantodia maya (Sasussuri and Zehnter) also uses C. Planatus as a model[22]. Individuals that mimic C. Planatus are typically 3-9mm long and are considered to be one of the most conspicuous ants of the Mountain Pine Ridge, hence, predators tend to avoid them. They forage on both leaf litter and shrub debris. All four mimics have been seen foraging in areas with their model with no interference. [23].

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  4. ^ a b c d e Huang, Jin-Nan; Cheng, Ren-Chung; Li, Daiqin; Tso, I.-Min (2011-05-07). "Salticid predation as one potential driving force of ant mimicry in jumping spiders". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 278 (1710): 1356–1364. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.1896. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 3061141. PMID 20961898.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  5. ^ Cushing, Paula E. (1997). "Myrmecomorphy and Myrmecophily in Spiders: A Review". The Florida Entomologist. 80 (2): 165–193. doi:10.2307/3495552.
  6. ^ Cutler, Bruce (1991-05). "Reduced predation on the antlike jumping spiderSynageles occidentalis (Araneae: Salticidae)". Journal of Insect Behavior. 4 (3): 401–407. doi:10.1007/bf01048287. ISSN 0892-7553. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  7. ^ Cross, Fiona R.; Jackson, Robert R. (2009-06-15). "Cross-modality priming of visual and olfactory selective attention by a spider that feeds indirectly on vertebrate blood". Journal of Experimental Biology. 212 (12): 1869–1875. doi:10.1242/jeb.028126. ISSN 0022-0949. PMID 19483005.
  8. ^ Cushing, P. E. C. 1996. Myrmecomorphy and myrmecophily in spiders: a review. Florida Entomologist. 80(2):16-193 [1]
  9. ^ Nelson, Ximena; et al. (April 2006). "Innate aversion to ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and ant mimics: experimental findings from mantises (Mantodea)". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 88 (1): 23–32. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2006.00598.x.
  10. ^ Weins, D (1978). "Mimicry in plants". Evolutionary Biology. 11: 365–403.
  11. ^ a b Lev- Yadun, Simcha (2009). "Ant mimicry by Passiflora Flowers?". Israel Journal of Entomology. 39: 159–163.
  12. ^ O’Hanlon, James C.; Holwell, Gregory I.; Herberstein, Marie E. (2014-01). "Pollinator Deception in the Orchid Mantis". The American Naturalist. 183 (1): 126–132. doi:10.1086/673858. ISSN 0003-0147. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  13. ^ Viegas, Jennifer (15 November 2014). "More Than 300 Spiders Pretend to be Ants". Discovery.
  14. ^ Murphy, Frances & Murphy, John (2000): "An Introduction to the Spiders of South East Asia". Malaysian Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur. Page 303
  15. ^ a b OLIVEIRA, PAULO S.; SAZIMA, IVAN (1984-06). "The adaptive bases of ant-mimicry in a neotropical aphantochilid spider (Araneae: Aphantochilidae)". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 22 (2): 145–155. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1984.tb01675.x. ISSN 0024-4066. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  16. ^ a b c Dettner, K.; Liepert, C. (1994). "Chemical mimicry and camouflage". A. Rev. Entomol. 39: 129–154.
  17. ^ a b Akino, T.; Knapp, J. J.; Thomas, J. A.; Elmes, G. W. (1999-07-22). "Chemical mimicry and host specificity in the butterfly Maculinea rebeli, a social parasite of Myrmica ant colonies". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 266 (1427): 1419–1426. doi:10.1098/rspb.1999.0796. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 1690087.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  18. ^ Malcicka, Miriama; Bezemer, T. Martijn; Visser, Bertanne; Bloemberg, Mark; Snart, Charles J. P.; Hardy, Ian C. W.; Harvey, Jeffrey A. (2015-01-27). "Multi-trait mimicry of ants by a parasitoid wasp". Scientific Reports. 5 (1). doi:10.1038/srep08043. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4306968. PMID 25622726.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  19. ^ a b c d Malcicka, Miriama; Bezemer, T. Martijn; Visser, Bertanne; Bloemberg, Mark; Snart, Charles J. P.; Hardy, Ian C. W.; Harvey, Jeffrey A. (2015-01-27). "Multi-trait mimicry of ants by a parasitoid wasp". Scientific Reports. 5 (1). doi:10.1038/srep08043. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4306968. PMID 25622726.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
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  22. ^ a b c d Jackson, James F.; Drummond, Boyce A. (1974). "A Batesian Ant-Mimicry Complex from the Mountain Pine Ridge of British Honduras, with an Example of Transformational Mimicry". The American Midland Naturalist. 91 (1): 248–251. doi:10.2307/2424528.
  23. ^ OLIVEIRA, PAULO S.; SAZIMA, IVAN (1984-06). "The adaptive bases of ant-mimicry in a neotropical aphantochilid spider (Araneae: Aphantochilidae)". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 22 (2): 145–155. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1984.tb01675.x. ISSN 0024-4066. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
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