User:Clayoquot/CDR

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New Sources[edit]

Royal Society: [1] 

Attribution:

 This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY 4.0. Text taken from Greenhouse Gas Removal​, The Royal Society and The Royal Academy of Engineering.


This page is about removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For technologies that remove carbon dioxide from point sources, see Carbon capture and storage.

Planting trees is a means of carbon dioxide removal.

Carbon dioxide removal (CDR), also known as greenhouse gas removal (GGR) or negative CO2 emissions, is a process in which carbon dioxide gas (CO2) is removed from the atmosphere by deliberate human activities and durably stored in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products.[2]: 2221  CDR methods are also known as negative emissions technologies. In the context of net zero greenhouse gas emissions targets,[3] CDR is increasingly integrated into climate policy, as a new element of climate change mitigation strategies.[4] Use of CDR can be less expensive than reducing some sources of emissions.[5]

CDR methods include afforestation, agricultural practices that sequester carbon in soils (carbon farming), bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS), enhanced weathering, and direct air capture when combined with storage.[6]: 115  To assess whether net negative emissions are achieved by a particular process, comprehensive life cycle analysis of the process must be performed.

There is potential to remove and sequester up to 10 gigatons of carbon dioxide per year by using those existing CDR methods which can be safely and economically deployed now.[5] This would offset greenhouse gas emissions at about a fifth of the rate at which they are being produced (as of 2018).[5]

All emission pathways that limit global warming to 1.5 °C or 2 °C by the year 2100 assume the use of CDR approaches in combination with emission reductions.[7][8]

Definitions[edit]

Part of a series on the
Carbon cycle
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Carbon dioxide
Forms of carbon
Metabolic pathways
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Methane
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Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) is defined by the IPCC as:

Anthropogenic activities removing CO2 from the atmosphere and durably storing it in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products. It includes existing and potential anthropogenic enhancement of biological or geochemical sinks and direct air capture and storage, but excludes natural CO2 uptake not directly caused by human activities.[2]: 2221 

Synonyms for CDR include greenhouse gas removal (GGR),[9] negative emissions technology,[5] and carbon removal.[10] Technologies have been proposed for removing non-CO2 greenhouse gases such as methane from the atmosphere,[11] but only carbon dioxide is currently feasible to remove at scale.[9] Therefore in most contexts, greenhouse gas removal means carbon dioxide removal.

The term geoengineering (or climate engineering) is sometimes used in the scientific literature for both CDR or SRM (solar radiation management), if the techniques are used at a global scale.[12]: 6–11  The terms geoengineering or climate engineering are no longer used in IPCC reports.[2]

Categories[edit]

CDR methods can be placed in different categories that are based on different criteria:[6]: 114 

  • Role in the carbon cycle (land-based biological; ocean-based biological; geochemical; chemical); or
  • Timescale of storage (decades to centuries; centuries to millennia; thousand years or longer)

Concepts using similar terminology[edit]

CDR can be confused with carbon capture and storage (CCS), a process in which carbon dioxide is collected from point-sources such as gas-fired power plants, whose smokestacks emit CO2 in a concentrated stream. The CO2 is then compressed and sequestered or utilized.[13] When used to sequester the carbon from a gas-fired power plant, CCS reduces emissions from continued use of the point source, but does not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere.

Potential for climate change mitigation[edit]

Further information: climate change mitigation

Use of CDR reduces the overall rate at which humans are adding carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. All emission pathways that limit global warming to 1.5 °C or 2 °C by the year 2100 assume the use of CDR approaches in combination with emission reductions.[7][8] CDR can be used to address certain types of emissions that are technically difficult to eliminate, such as nitrous oxide emissions from agriculture. Offsetting these types of emissions through CDR may be less expensive than eliminating them directly.

The Earth’s surface temperature will stabilize only after global emissions reach net zero, which will require both aggressive efforts to reduce emissions and deployment of CDR. After the warming trend stops, CDR could be used to reduce atmospheric CO2 concentrations, partially reversing the warming.

The possibility of large-scale future CDR deployment has been described as a moral hazard, as it could lead to a reduction in near-term efforts to mitigate climate change.[14][5] The 2019 NASEM report concludes:

Any argument to delay mitigation efforts because NETs will provide a backstop drastically misrepresents their current capacities and the likely pace of research progress.[5]

Feasibility[edit]

A 2019 consensus study report by NASEM assessed the potential of all forms of CDR other than ocean fertilization that could be deployed safely and economically using current technologies, and estimated that they could remove up to 10 gigatons of CO2 per year if fully deployed worldwide.[5] This is one-fifth of the 50 gigatons of CO2 emitted per year by human activities.[5] In 2018, all analyzed mitigation pathways that would prevent more than 1.5 °C of warming included CDR measures.[15]

Some mitigation pathways propose achieving higher rates of CDR through massive deployment of one technology, however these pathways assume that hundreds of millions of hectares of cropland are converted to growing biofuel crops.[5] Further research in the areas of direct air capture, geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide, and carbon mineralization could potentially yield technological advancements that make higher rates of CDR economically feasible.[5]

Reliance on large-scale deployment of CDR was regarded in 2018 as a "major risk" to achieving the goal of less than 1.5 °C of warming, given the uncertainties in how quickly CDR can be deployed at scale.[15] Strategies for mitigating climate change that rely less on CDR and more on sustainable use of energy carry less of this risk.[15][16]

Public perception[edit]

When CDR is framed as a form of climate engineering, people tend to view it as intrinsically risky.[5][need quotation to verify] In fact, CDR addresses the root cause of climate change and is part of strategies to reduce net emissions and manage risks related to elevated atmospheric CO2 levels.[17][18]

Methods[edit]

Overview listing based on technology readiness level[edit]

The following is a list of known CDR methods in the order of their technology readiness level. The ones at the top have a high TDR of 8 to 9 (9 being the maximum possible value, meaning the technology is proven), the ones at the bottom have a low TDR of 1 to 2, meaning the technology is not proven or only validated at laboratory scale.[6]: 115 

  1. Afforestation/ reforestation
  2. Soil carbon sequestration in croplands and grasslands
  3. Peatland and coastal wetland restoration
  4. Agroforestry, improved forest management
  5. Biochar
  6. Direct air carbon capture and storage (DACCS), bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS)
  7. Enhanced weathering (EW)
  8. ‘Blue carbon management’ in coastal wetlands (restoration of vegetated coastal ecosystems; an ocean-based biological CDR method which encompasses mangroves, salt marshes and seagrass beds)
  9. Ocean fertilisation, ocean alkalinity enhancement

The CDR methods with the greatest potential to contribute to climate change mitigation efforts as per illustrative mitigation pathways are the land-based biological CDR methods (primarily afforestation/reforestation (A/R)) and/or bioenergy with carbon capture  and storage (BECCS). Some of the pathways also include direct air capture and storage (DACCS).[6]: 114 

Afforestation, reforestation, and forestry management[edit]

Trees use photosynthesis to absorb carbon dioxide and store the carbon in wood and soils.[10] Afforestation is the establishment of a forest in an area where there was previously no forest.[19]: 1794  Reforestation is the re-establishment of a forest that has been previously cleared.[19]: 1812  Forests are vital for human society, animals and plant species. This is because trees keep air clean, regulate the local climate and provide a habitat for numerous species.[20]

As trees grow they absorb CO2 from the atmosphere and store it in living biomass, dead organic matter and soils. Afforestation and reforestation – sometimes referred to collectively as ‘forestation’ – facilitate this process of carbon removal by establishing or re-establishing forest areas. Once a forest reaches maturity the net uptake of CO2 slows, though additional gains can be made through forest management, such as by optimising thinning and improved rotation. Once mature, forest products can be harvested and the biomass stored in long-lived wood products, or used for bioenergy or biochar. Consequent forest regrowth then allows continuing CO2 removal.[21]

Agricultural practices[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Carbon farming.[edit]
Carbon farming uses methods of enhanced carbon sequestration in the soil. The image shows measuring soil respiration on agricultural land.

Carbon farming is a set of agricultural methods that aim to store carbon in the soil, crop roots, wood and leaves. The technical term for this is carbon sequestration. The overall goal of carbon farming is to create a net loss of carbon from the atmosphere.[22] This is done by increasing the rate at which carbon is sequestered into soil and plant material. One option is to increase the soil's organic matter content. This can also aid plant growth, improve soil water retention capacity[23] and reduce fertilizer use.[24] Sustainable forest management is another tool that is used in carbon farming.[25] Carbon farming is one component of climate-smart agriculture. It is also one of the methods for carbon dioxide removal (CDR).

Agricultural methods for carbon farming include adjusting how tillage and livestock grazing is done, using organic mulch or compost, working with biochar and terra preta, and changing the crop types. Methods used in forestry include for example reforestation and bamboo farming.

Carbon farming methods might have additional costs. Some countries have government policies that give financial incentives to farmers to use carbon farming methods.[26]

As of 2016, variants of carbon farming reached hundreds of millions of hectares globally, of the nearly 5 billion hectares (1.2×1010 acres) of world farmland.[27]

Carbon farming is not without its challenges or disadvantages. This is because some of its methods can affect ecosystem services. For example, carbon farming could cause an increase of land clearing, monocultures and biodiversity loss.[28] It is important to maximize environmental benefits of carbon farming by keeping in mind ecosystem services at the same time.[28]

Bioenergy with carbon capture & storage (BECCS)[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage.[edit]
Diagram-of-Bioenergie power plant with carbon capture and storage (cropped).jpg (description page)

Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) is the process of extracting bioenergy from biomass and capturing and storing the carbon, thereby removing it from the atmosphere.[29] BECCS can theoretically be a "negative emissions technology" (NET),[30] although its deployment at the scale considered by many governments and industries can "also pose major economic, technological, and social feasibility challenges; threaten food security and human rights; and risk overstepping multiple planetary boundaries, with potentially irreversible consequences".[31] The carbon in the biomass comes from the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) which is extracted from the atmosphere by the biomass when it grows. Energy ("bioenergy") is extracted in useful forms (electricity, heat, biofuels, etc.) as the biomass is utilized through combustion, fermentation, pyrolysis or other conversion methods.

Some of the carbon in the biomass is converted to CO2 or biochar which can then be stored by geologic sequestration or land application, respectively, enabling carbon dioxide removal (CDR).[30]

The potential range of negative emissions from BECCS was estimated to be zero to 22 gigatonnes per year.[32] As of 2019, five facilities around the world were actively using BECCS technologies and were capturing approximately 1.5 million tonnes per year of CO2.[33] Wide deployment of BECCS is constrained by cost and availability of biomass.[34][35]: 10 

Biochar Carbon Removal (BCR)[edit]

Main article: Biochar

Biochar is created by the pyrolysis of biomass, and is under investigation as a method of carbon sequestration. Biochar is a charcoal that is used for agricultural purposes which also aids in carbon sequestration, the capture or hold of carbon. It is created using a process called pyrolysis, which is basically the act of high temperature heating biomass in an environment with low oxygen levels. What remains is a material known as char, similar to charcoal but is made through a sustainable process, thus the use of biomass.[36] Biomass is organic matter produced by living organisms or recently living organisms, most commonly plants or plant based material.[37] A study done by the UK Biochar Research Center has stated that, on a conservative level, biochar can store 1 gigaton of carbon per year. With greater effort in marketing and acceptance of biochar, the benefit could be the storage of 5–9 gigatons per year of carbon in biochar soils.[38][better source needed]

Direct air capture with carbon sequestration (DACCS)[edit]

The International Energy Agency reported growth in direct air capture global operating capacity.[39]
This section is an excerpt from Direct air capture.[edit]

Direct air capture (DAC) is the use of chemical or physical processes to extract carbon dioxide directly from the ambient air.[40] If the extracted CO2 is then sequestered in safe long-term storage (called direct air carbon capture and sequestration (DACCS)), the overall process will achieve carbon dioxide removal and be a "negative emissions technology" (NET).

Others[edit]

Magnesium silicate/oxide in cement[edit]

The replacement of carbonate in cement allows for the potential absorption of carbon dioxide over concrete lifecycle.[41]: 64  However, lifecycle amounts are not yet fully understood.[41]

Issues[edit]

Economic issues[edit]

Further information: Economics of climate change mitigation and Economics of climate change

The cost of CDR differs substantially depending on the maturity of the technology employed as well as the economics of both voluntary carbon removal markets and the physical output; for example, the pyrolysis of biomass produces biochar that has various commercial applications, including soil regeneration and wastewater treatment.[42] In 2021 DAC cost from $250 to $600 per ton, compared to $100 for biochar and less than $50 for nature-based solutions, such as reforestation and afforestation.[43][44] The fact that biochar commands a higher price in the carbon removal market than nature-based solutions reflects the fact that it is a more durable sink with carbon being sequestered for hundreds or even thousands of years while nature-based solutions represent a more volatile form of storage, which risks related to forest fires, pests, economic pressures and changing political priorities.[45] The Oxford Principles for Net Zero Aligned Carbon Offsetting states that to be compatible with the Paris Agreement: "...organizations must commit to gradually increase the percentage of carbon removal offsets they procure with the view of exclusively sourcing carbon removals by mid-century."[46] These initiatives along with the development of new industry standards for engineered carbon removal, such as the Puro Standard, will help to support the growth of the carbon removal market.[47]

Forests can be used to create carbon credits,[48] often involving the use of geospatial analytical systems to calculate carbon offsets by conserving a forest area or a reforestation initiative. REDD+ is an example of a carbon credit initiative. Individuals and businesses can purchase carbon credits through verified retailers such as ACT4

Although CDR is not covered by the EU Allowance as of 2021, the European Commission is preparing for carbon removal certification and considering carbon contracts for difference.[49][50] CDR might also in future be added to the UK Emissions Trading Scheme.[41] As of end 2021 carbon prices for both these cap-and-trade schemes currently based on carbon reductions, as opposed to carbon removals, remained below $100.[51][52]

As of early 2023, financing has fell short of the sums required for CDR to contribute significantly to climate change mitigation, though available funds have recently increased substantially. Most of this increase has been from voluntary private sector initiatives. [53] Such as a private sector alliance led by Stripe with prominent members including Meta, Google and Shopify, which in April 2022 revealed a nearly $1 billion fund to reward companies able to permanently capture & store carbon. According to senior Stripe employee Nan Ransohoff, the fund was "roughly 30 times the carbon-removal market that existed in 2021. But it’s still 1,000 times short of the market we need by 2050."[54] The predominance of private sector funding has raised concerns as historically, voluntary markets have proved "orders of magnitude"[53] smaller than those brought about by government policy. As of 2023 however, various governments have increased their support for CDR; these include Sweden, Switzerland, and the US. Recent activity from the US government includes the June 2022 Notice of Intent to fund the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law's $3.5 billion CDR program, and the signing into law of the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022, which contains the 45Q tax to enhance the CDR market. [53] [55]

Removal of other greenhouse gases[edit]

Although some researchers have suggested methods for removing methane, others say that nitrous oxide would be a better subject for research due to its longer lifetime in the atmosphere.[56]

See also[edit]

Sources[edit]

  • IPCC, 2018: Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty [V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, H. O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J. B. R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M. I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, T. Waterfield (eds.)].
  • Fajardy, Mathilde; Köberle, Alexandre; Mac Dowell, Niall; Fantuzzi, Andrea (2019). "BECCS deployment: a reality check" (PDF). Grantham Institute Imperial College London.

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