User:Al Ameer son/Aqsa

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Umayyad period[edit]

The mosque along the southern wall of al-Haram al-Sharif

A mostly wooden, rectangular mosque on the Temple Mount site with a capacity for 3,000 worshippers is attested by the Gallic monk Arculf during his pilgrimage to Jerusalem in c. 679–682.[1][2] Its precise location is not known.[2] The art historian Oleg Grabar deems it likely that it was close to the present mosque,[2] while the historian Yildirim Yavuz asserts it stood at the present site of the Dome of Rock.[3] The architectural historian K. A. C. Creswell notes that Arculf's attestation lends credibility to claims by some Islamic traditions and medieval Christian chronicles, which he otherwise deems legendary or unreliable, that the second Rashidun caliph, Umar (r. 634–644), ordered the construction of a primitive mosque on the Temple Mount. However, Arculf visited Palestine during the reign of Caliph Mu'awiya I (r. 661–680), founder of the Syria-based Umayyad Caliphate.[1] Mu'awiya had been governor of Syria, including Palestine, for about twenty years before becoming caliph and his accession ceremony was held in Jerusalem. The 10th-century Jerusalemite scholar al-Mutahhar ibn Tahir al-Maqdisi claims Mu'awiya built a mosque on the Haram.[4]

There is disagreement as to whether the present al-Aqsa Mosque was originally built by the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik (r. 685–705) or his successor, his son al-Walid I (r. 705–715). Several architectural historians hold that Abd al-Malik commissioned the project and that al-Walid finished or expanded it.[a] Abd al-Malik inaugurated great architectural works on the Temple Mount, including construction of the Dome of the Rock in c. 691. A common Islamic tradition holds that Abd al-Malik simultaneously commissioned the Dome of the Rock and the al-Aqsa Mosque.[6] As both were intentionally built on the same axis, Grabar comments that the two structures form "part of an architecturally thought-out ensemble comprising a congregational and a commemorative building", the al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock, respectively.[10][b] Guy le Strange claims that Abd al-Malik used materials from the destroyed Church of Our Lady to build the mosque and points to possible evidence that substructures on the southeast corners of the mosque are remains of the church.[11]

The earliest source indicating that al-Walid built the mosque is the Aphrodito Papryi. These contain the letters between al-Walid's governor of Egypt in 709–714 and a government official in Upper Egypt which discuss the dispatch of Egyptian laborers and craftsmen to help build the al-Aqsa Mosque, referred to as the "Mosque of Jerusalem", as well as the caliphal palace and other structures on and near the sanctuary site. The referenced workers spent between six months and a year on the construction.[12] The 10th-century historians Eutychius of Alexandria and al-Muhallabi attribute the mosque's construction to al-Walid, though they also erroneously credit him for the Dome of the Rock's construction. The many other inaccuracies in their works make the historian Amikam Elad question their reliability on the matter. A number of 13th-century historians, including Ibn al-Athir, support the claim, but Elad points out that they copy directly from the 10th-century historian al-Tabari, whose work only mentions al-Walid building the great mosques of Damascus and Medina, with the 13th-century historians adding the al-Aqsa Mosque to his roster of great building works. Traditions by sources based in nearby Ramla in the mid-8th century similarly credit al-Walid for the mosques in Damascus and Medina, but limit his role in Jerusalem to providing food for the city's Quran reciters.[13]

In 713–714, a series of earthquakes ravaged Jerusalem, destroying the eastern section of the mosque, which was subsequently rebuilt by al-Walid's order. He had gold from the Dome of the Rock melted to use as money to finance the repairs and renovations. He is credited by the early 15th-century historian al-Qalqashandi for covering the mosque's walls with mosaics.[9] Grabar notes that the Umayyad-era mosque was adorned with mosaics, marble, and "remarkable crafted and painted woodwork".[10] The latter are preserved partly in the Palestine Archaeological Museum and partly in the Islamic Museum.[10]

Proposed estimates of the size of the Umayyad-built mosque by architectural historians range from 112 by 39 meters (367 ft × 128 ft)[14] and 114.6 by 69.2 meters (376 ft × 227 ft).[3] The building was rectangular.[3] In the assessment of Grabar, the layout was a modified version of the traditional hypostyle mosque of the period. Its "unusual" characteristic was that its aisles laid perpendicular to the qibla wall. The number of aisles is not definitively known, though fifteen is cited by a number of historians. The central aisle, double the width of the others, was probably topped by a dome.[10]

The last years of Umayyad rule were turbulent for Jerusalem. The last Umayyad caliph, Marwan II (r. 744–750) punished Jerusalem's inhabitants for supporting a rebellion against him by rival princes, and tore down the city's walls.[15] In 746, the al-Aqsa Mosque was ruined in an earthquake. Four years later, the Umayyads were toppled and replaced by the Iraq-based Abbasid Caliphate.[16]

Abbasid period[edit]

The Abbasids generally exhibited little interest in Jerusalem,[17] though the historian Shelomo Dov Goitein notes they "paid special tribute" to the city during the early part of their rule,[15] and Grabar asserts that the early Abbasids' work on the mosque suggests "a major attempt to assert Abbasid sponsorship of holy places".[18] Nevertheless, in contrast to the Umayyad period, maintenance of the al-Aqsa Mosque during Abbasid rule often came at the initiative of the local Muslim community, rather than from the caliph.[16][10] The second Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur (r. 754–775), visited Jerusalem in 758, on his return from the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca. He found the structures on the Haram in ruins from the 746 earthquake, including the al-Aqsa Mosque. According to the tradition cited by Mujir al-Din, the caliph was beseeched by the city's Muslim residents to fund the buildings' restoration. In response, he had the gold and silver plaques covering the mosque's doors converted into dinars and dirhams to finance the reconstruction.[17]

A second earthquake damaged most of al-Mansur's repairs, except for the southern portion near the mihrab (prayer niche indicating the qibla). In 780, his successor, al-Mahdi, ordered its reconstruction, mandating that his provincial governors and other commanders each contribute the cost of a colonnade.[19] Al-Mahdi's renovation is the first known to have written records describing it.[20] The Jerusalemite geographer al-Muqaddasi, writing in 985, provided the following description:

This mosque is even more beautiful than that of Damascus ... the edifice [after al-Mahdi's reconstruction] rose firmer and more substantial than ever it had been in former times. The more ancient portion remained, even like a beauty spot, in the midst of the new ... the Aqsa mosque has twenty-six doors ... The centre of the Main-building is covered by a mighty roof, high pitched and gable-wise, over which rises a magnificent dome.[21]

Al-Muqaddasi further noted that the mosque consisted of fifteen aisles aligned perpendicularly to the qibla and possessed an elaborately decorated porch with the names of the Abbasid caliphs inscribed on its gates.[18] According to Hamilton, al-Muqaddasi's description of the Abbasid-era mosque is corroborated by his archaeological findings in 1938–1942, which showed the Abbasid construction retained some parts of the older structure and had a broad central aisle topped by a dome.[22] The mosque described by al-Muqaddasi opened to the north, toward the Dome of the Rock, and, unusually according to Grabar, to the east.[18]

Other than al-Mansur and al-Mahdi, no other Abbasid caliphs visited Jerusalem or commissioned work on the al-Aqsa Mosque, though Caliph al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833) ordered significant work elsewhere on the Haram. He also contributed a bronze portal to the mosque's interior, and the geographer Nasir Khusraw noted during his 1047 visit that al-Ma'mun's name was inscribed on it.[23] Abd Allah ibn Tahir, the Abbasid governor of the eastern province of Khurasan (r. 828–844), is credited by al-Muqaddasi for building a colonnade on marble pillars in front of the fifteen doors on the mosque's front (north) side.[24]

Fatimid period[edit]

A 19th-century chromolithograph of the mosque's interior. The mosaic designs on the drum of the dome, the pendentives, and the archway in front of the mihrab date from the mid-11th-century Fatimid reconstruction

In 970, the Egypt-based Fatimid Caliphate conquered Palestine from the Ikhshidids, nominal allegiants of the Abbasids. Unlike the Abbasids and the Muslim inhabitants of Jerusalem, who were Sunnis, the Fatimids followed Shia Islam in its Isma'ili form.[25] In 1033, another earthquake severely damaged the mosque. The Fatimid caliph al-Zahir (r. 1021–1036) had the mosque reconstructed between 1034 and 1036.[18] The new mosque was considerably smaller, reduced from fifteen aisles to seven,[18] probably a reflection of the local population's significant decline by this time.[26][c] Excluding the two aisles on each side of the central nave, each aisle was made up of eleven arches running perpendicular to the qibla. The central nave was twice the breadth of the other aisles and had a gabled roof with a dome.[29][d] The mosque likely lacked the side doors of its predecessor.[18]

A prominent and distinctive feature of the new construction was the rich mosaic program endowed to the drum of the dome, the pendentives leading to the dome, and the arch in front of the mihrab.[29][30] These three adjoining areas covered by the mosaics are collectively referred to as the "triumphal arch" by Grabar or the "maqsura" by Pruitt.[29] Mosaic designs were rare in Islamic architecture in the post-Umayyad era and al-Zahir's mosaics were a revival of this Umayyad architectural practice, including Abd al-Malik's mosaics in the Dome of the Rock, but on a larger scale. The drum mosaic depicts a luxurious garden inspired by the Umayyad or Classical style. The four pendentives are gold and characterized by indented roundels with alternating gold and silver planes and patterns of peacock's eyes, eight-pointed stars, and palm fronds. On the arch are large depictions of vegetation emanating from small vases.[31][30]

Caliph al-Zahir's inscription above the mihrab

Atop the mihrab arch is a lengthy inscription in gold directly linking the al-Aqsa Mosque with Muhammad's Night Journey (the isra and mi'raj) from the "masjid al-haram" to the "masjid al-aqsa".[32] It marked the first instance of this Quranic verse being inscribed in Jerusalem, leading Grabar to hypothesize that it was an official move by the Fatimids to magnify the site's sacred character.[26] The inscription credits al-Zahir for renovating the mosque and two otherwise unknown figures, Abu al-Wasim and a sharif, al-Hasan al-Husayni, for supervising the work.[32][e]

Nasir Khusraw described the mosque during his 1047 visit.[33] He deemed it "very large", measuring 420 by 150 cubits on its western side.[34] However, the length given by Nasir Khusraw "cannot possibly be correct", according to the historian Denys Pringle, who supports Le Strange's reduction of the length to 120 cubits, while keeping the width at 150 cubits.[35] The distance between each "sculptured" marble column, 280 in number, was six cubits, according to Nasir Khusraw, who further notes that they were supported by stone arches and lead joints.[34] He noted the following features:

... the mosque is everywhere flagged with coloured marble ... The Maksurah [or space railed off for the officials] is facing the centre of the south wall [of the Mosque and Haram Area], and is of such size as to contain sixteen columns. Above rises a mighty dome that is ornamented with enamel work.[34]

Al-Zahir's substantial investment in the Haram, including the al-Aqsa Mosque, amid the political instability in the capital Cairo, rebellions by Bedouin tribes, especially the Jarrahids of Palestine, and plagues, indicate the caliph's "commitment to Jerusalem", in Pruitt's words.[36] Although the city had experienced decreases in its population in the preceding decades, the Fatimids attempted to build up the magnificence and symbolism of the mosque, and the Haram in general, for their own religious and political reasons.[f] The present-day mosque largely retains al-Zahir's plan.[39]

The last Fatimid renovation made to the mosque was in 1065, when Caliph al-Mustansir (r. 1036–1094) built its façade, for which he is credited by an inscription on a cornice near the entrance to the building.[35] Fatimid investment in Jerusalem ground to a halt toward the end of the 11th century as their rule became further destabilized. In 1071, a Turkish mercenary, Atsiz, was invited by the city's Fatimid governor to rein in the Bedouin, but he turned on the Fatimids, besieging and capturing Jerusalem in 1071. A few years later, the inhabitants revolted against him, and were slaughtered by Atsiz, including those who had taken shelter in the al-Aqsa Mosque. He was killed by the Turkish Seljuks in 1078, establishing Seljuk rule over the city, which lasted until the Fatimids regained control in 1098.[40]

Crusader/Ayyubid period[edit]

After a nearly month-long siege, Jerusalem was captured by the Crusaders in July 1099, during the First Crusade, and a massacre of the city's Muslims and Jews ensued.[41] Until that point, the al-Aqsa Mosque had continued to serve as the main congregational mosque of the city.[35] Many Jerusalemites had taken refuge inside the mosque and on its roof.[35] Those inside were killed, with estimates of the slain ranging from 3,000 to 10,000. Those on the roof, some 300, were also slain, despite guarantees of safety offered by the knights of the Crusader prince Tancred.[35][42] The Crusaders named the mosque Templum Solomonis (lit. 'Solomon's Temple'), distinguishing it from the Dome of the Rock, which they named Templum Domini (lit. 'Temple of God').[43]

While the Dome of the Rock was turned into a Christian church under the care of the Augustinians,[43] the al-Aqsa Mosque became a royal palace of Baldwin I, King of Jerusalem, starting in 1104.[42] Two years later, Fulcher of Chartres recorded that the building, though "large and wonderful", was deteriorating. Parts of its roof were often falling and other times being dismantled by order of Baldwin I, who sold the refuse. Fulcher attributed this state of affairs to the king's "poverty".[44] Sculptured pieces, such as some of the capitals, were contributed to the newly rebuilt Church of the Holy Sepulchre.[45] The historian Denys Pringle notes that the disrepair witnessed by a Fulcher "may have been the building works undertaken to fit the building for its new role" as the king's palace.[44]

and also as a stable for horses. In 1119, the Crusader king accommodated the headquarters of the Knights Templar next to his palace within the building. During this period, the mosque underwent some structural changes, including the expansion of its northern porch, and the addition of an apse and a dividing wall. A new cloister and church were also built at the site, along with various other structures.[46] The Templars constructed vaulted western and eastern annexes to the building; the western currently serves as the women's mosque and the eastern as the Islamic Museum.[47]

The doors of the Saladin Minbar, 1905.

After the Ayyubids under the leadership of Saladin reconquered Jerusalem following the siege of 1187, several repairs and renovations were undertaken at al-Aqsa Mosque. In order to prepare the mosque for Friday prayers, within a week of his capture of Jerusalem Saladin had the toilets and grain stores installed by the Crusaders at al-Aqsa removed, the floors covered with precious carpets, and its interior scented with rosewater and incense.[48] Saladin's predecessor—the Zengid sultan Nur al-Din—had commissioned the construction of a new minbar or "pulpit" made of ivory and wood in 1168–69, but it was completed after his death; Nur ad-Din's minbar was added to the mosque in November 1187 by Saladin.[49] The Ayyubid sultan of Damascus, al-Mu'azzam, built the northern porch of the mosque with three gates in 1218. In 1345, the Mamluks under al-Kamil Shaban added two naves and two gates to the mosque's eastern side.[47]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ K. A. C. Creswell and the archaeologist Robert Hamilton both attribute the original Umayyad construction to al-Walid.[5][6] Other architectural historians, Henri Stern, Julian Rabi,[7] Jere Bacharach,[8] Yildirim Yavuz,[3] Rafi Grafman and Myriam Rosen-Ayalon, and Amikam Elad,[9] credit Abd al-Malik with commissioning or starting the project and al-Walid with finishing it.
  2. ^ This tradition is detailed in the work of the 15th-century Jerusalemite historian Mujir al-Din, the 15th-century historian al-Suyuti and the 11th-century Jerusalemite writers al-Wasiti and Ibn al-Murajja. The tradition cites an isnad (chain of transmission) traced to Thabit, a mid-8th-century attendant of the sanctuary complex, who transmits on the authority of Raja ibn Haywa, Abd al-Malik's court theologian who supervised the financing of the Dome of the Rock's construction.[6]
  3. ^ A great famine during the reign of al-Ma'mun depleted the Muslim population, and the situation was exacerbated for all of the city's inhabitants during the city's plunder by the peasant rebels of al-Mubarqa.[27] The situation may have recovered by the late 10th century, but the unprecedented depredations throughout Palestine by the Bedouins of the Banu Tayy under the Jarrahids in the 1020s likely caused a substantial decrease in the population.[28]
  4. ^ This description of al-Zahir's mosque is the general scholarly view and is based on archaeological studies carried out during restoration work in the 1920s and the diary of Nasir Khusraw's visit in 1047.[29]
  5. ^ The inscription above the central mihrab reads

    In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful, Glory to the One who took his servant for a journey by night from the masjid al-haram to the masjid al-aqsa whose precincts we have blessed. [… He] has renovated it, our lord Ali Abu al-Hasan the imam al-Zahir li-i'zaz Din Allah, Commander of the Faithful, son of al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, Commander of the Faithful, may the blessing of God be on him and his pure ancestors, and on his noble descendants [Shia religious formula alluding to the descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatima and her husband Ali, Muhammad's cousin]. By the hand of Ali ibn Abd al-Rahman, may God reward him. The [job] was supervised by Abu al-Wasim and al-Sharif al-Hasan al-Husaini.[32]
  6. ^ The Fatimid efforts to strengthen the Muslim position in Jerusalem, starting from the reign of al-Zahir's predecessor, Caliph al-Hakim, was part of a proxy religious conflict between them and the Christian Byzantine Empire. From at least the 9th century, efforts had been underway to boost the city's Christian edifices, such as the Holy Sepulchre, and pilgrimage infrastructure by Christian powers and leaders, including the Carolingian Empire and the patriarch of Jerusalem, in the backdrop of renewed Byzantine offensive action against Islamic Syria. Recurrences of mob violence by the city's Muslims against Christians are reported in the 10th century, a time in which al-Muqaddasi laments that Christians and Jews in Jerusalem held the upper hand against the Muslims.[37] The Fatimid inscription also points to al-Zahir's reassertion of the orthodox Muslim narrative of the Night Journey and Muhammad's primacy in Islam against the claims by the Druze, a newly emergent outgrowth of Isma'ili Islam in Egypt and Syria, of al-Hakim's divinity and occultation.[38]

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b Elad 1999, pp. 31–32.
  2. ^ a b c Grabar 1986, p. 340.
  3. ^ a b c d Yavuz 1996, p. 153.
  4. ^ Elad 1999, p. 33.
  5. ^ Allan 1991, p. 16.
  6. ^ a b c Elad 1999, p. 36.
  7. ^ Allan 1991, pp. 16–17.
  8. ^ Bacharach 1996, p. 30.
  9. ^ a b Elad 1999, p. 39.
  10. ^ a b c d e Grabar 1986, p. 341.
  11. ^ Le Strange 1890, pp. 90–91.
  12. ^ Elad 1999, pp. 26, 36–37.
  13. ^ Elad 1999, pp. 37–38.
  14. ^ Grafman & Rosen-Ayalon 1999, p. 6.
  15. ^ a b Goitein 1986, p. 326.
  16. ^ a b Pruitt 2017, p. 36.
  17. ^ a b Pruitt 2017, pp. 36–37.
  18. ^ a b c d e f Grabar 1991, p. 707.
  19. ^ Pruitt 2017, p. 37.
  20. ^ Jeffers 2004, pp. 95–96.
  21. ^ Le Strange 1890, pp. 98–99.
  22. ^ Pruitt 2017, pp. 37–38.
  23. ^ Pruitt 2017, pp. 36, 38.
  24. ^ Le Strange 1890, pp. 94, 98–99.
  25. ^ Pruitt 2017, p. 41.
  26. ^ a b Grabar 1986, p. 342.
  27. ^ Goitein 1986, pp. 326–327.
  28. ^ Goitein 1986, pp. 328–329.
  29. ^ a b c d Pruitt 2017, p. 45.
  30. ^ a b Grabar 1991, pp. 707–708.
  31. ^ Pruitt 2017, pp. 45–46.
  32. ^ a b c Pruitt 2017, p. 46.
  33. ^ Pruitt 2017, p. 47.
  34. ^ a b c Le Strange 1888, pp. 36–37.
  35. ^ a b c d e Pringle 1993, p. 419.
  36. ^ Pruitt 2017, p. 44.
  37. ^ Pruitt 2017, pp. 39–43.
  38. ^ Pruitt 2017, pp. 50–51.
  39. ^ Pruitt 2017, pp. 44–45.
  40. ^ Goitein 1986, p. 328.
  41. ^ Boas 2001, pp. 10–13.
  42. ^ a b Boas 2001, pp. 12–13.
  43. ^ a b Pringle 1993, p. 403.
  44. ^ a b Pringle 1993, p. 420.
  45. ^ Boas 2001.
  46. ^ Boas, 2001, p. 91.
  47. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Nusseibeh was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  48. ^ Hancock, Lee. Saladin and the Kingdom of Jerusalem: the Muslims recapture the Holy Land in AD 1187 Archived 12 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine. 2004: The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8239-4217-1
  49. ^ Madden, 2002, p. 230.

Sources[edit]

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