User:سائغ/N

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2010 – RV Yokosuka – JAMSTEC returned Yokosuka to the Challenger Deep with cruise YK10-16, 21–28 November 2010. The chief scientist of this joint Japanese-Danish expedition was Hiroshi Kitazato of the Institute of Biogeosciences, JAMSTEC. The cruise was titled "Biogeosciences at the Challenger Deep: relict organisms and their relations to biogeochemical cycles." The Japanese teams made five deployments of their 11,000-meter camera system (three to 6,000 meters – two into the central basin of the Challenger Deep) which returned with 15 sediment cores, video records and 140 scavenging amphipod specimens. The Danish Ultra Deep Lander System was employed by Ronnie Glud et al on four casts, two into the central basin of the Challenger Deep and two to 6,000 m some 34 nmi west of the central basin. The deepest depth recorded was on 28 November 2010 – camera cast CS5 – 11°21.9810′N 142°25.8680′E / 11.3663500°N 142.4311333°E / 11.3663500; 142.4311333}, at a corrected depth of 10,889.6 metres (35,727 ft) (the central basin).[1]

2013 – RV Yokosuka – With JAMSTEC Cruises YK13-09 & YK13-12, Yokosuka hosted chief scientist Hidetaka Nomaki for a trip to New Zealand waters (YK13-09), with the return cruise identified as YK13-12. The project name was QUELLE2013; and the cruise title was: "In situ experimental & sampling study to understand abyssal biodiversity and biogeochemical cycles." They spent one day on the return trip at the Challenger Deep to obtain DNA/RNA on the large amphipods inhabiting the Deep (Hirondellea gigas). Hideki Kobayashi (Biogeos, JAMSTEC) and team deployed a benthic lander on 23 November 2013 with eleven baited traps (three bald, five covered by insulating materials, and three automatically sealed after nine hours) into the central basin of the Challenger Deep at 11°21.9082′N 142°25.7606′E / 11.3651367°N 142.4293433°E / 11.3651367; 142.4293433, depth 10,896 metres (35,748 ft). After an eight-hour, 46-minute stay at the bottom, they recovered some 90 individual Hirondellea gigas.[2]

RV Kairei is used as the support ship for deep-diving ROVs

2014 – RV Kairei – JAMSTEC deployed Kairei to the Challenger Deep again 11–17 January 2014, under the leadership of chief scientist Takuro Nunora. The cruise identifier was KR14-01, titled: "Trench biosphere expedition for the Challenger Deep, Mariana Trench". The expedition sampled at six stations transecting the central basin, with only two deployments of the "11-K camera system" lander for sediment cores and water samples to "Station C" at the deepest depth, i.e. 11°22.19429′N 142°25.7574′E / 11.36990483°N 142.4292900°E / 11.36990483; 142.4292900, at 10,903 metres (35,771 ft). The other stations were investigated with the "Multi-core" lander, both to the backarc northward, and to the Pacific Plate southward. The 11,000-meter capable crawler-driven ROV ABIMSO was sent to 7,646 m depth about 20 nmi due north of the central basin (ABISMO dive #21) specifically to identify possible hydrothermal activity on the north slope of the Challenger Deep, as suggested by findings from Kairei cruise KR08-05 in 2008.[3] AMISMO's dives #20 and #22 were to 7,900 meters about 15 nmi north of the deepest waters of the central basin. Italian researchers under the leadership of Laura Carugati from the Polytechnic University of Marche, Italy (UNIVPM) were investigating the dynamics in virus/prokaryotes interactions in the Mariana Trench.[4]

2014 – RV Falkor – From 16–19 December 2014, the Schmidt Ocean Institute's 2,024-ton research vessel Falkor, under chief scientist Douglas Bartlett from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, deployed four different untethered instruments into the Challenger Deep for seven total releases. Four landers were deployed on 16 December into the central basin: the baited video-equipped lander Leggo for biologics; the lander ARI to 11°21.5809′N 142°27.2969′E / 11.3596817°N 142.4549483°E / 11.3596817; 142.4549483 for water chemistry; and the probes Deep Sound 3 and Deep Sound 2. Both Deep Sound probes recorded acoustics floating at 9,000 metres (29,528 ft) depth, until Deep Sound 3 imploded at the depth of 8,620 metres (28,281 ft) (about 2,200 metres (7,218 ft) above the bottom) at 11°21.99′N 142°27.2484′E / 11.36650°N 142.4541400°E / 11.36650; 142.4541400.[5] The Deep Sound 2 recorded the implosion of Deep Sound 3, providing a unique recording of an implosion within the Challenger Deep depression. In addition to the loss of the Deep Sound 3 by implosion, the lander ARI failed to respond upon receiving its instruction to drop weights, and was never recovered. On 16/17 December, Leggo was returned to the central basin baited for amphipods. On the 17th, RV Falkor relocated 17 nms eastward to the eastern basin, where they again deployed both the Leggo (baited and with its full camera load), and the Deep Sound 2. Deep Sound 2 was programmed to drop to 9,000 metres (29,528 ft) and remain at that depth during its recording of sounds within the trench. On 19 December Leggo landed at 11°22.11216′N 142°35.250996′E / 11.36853600°N 142.587516600°E / 11.36853600; 142.587516600 at a uncorrected depth of 11,168 metres (36,640 ft) according to its pressure sensor readings. This reading was corrected to 10,929 metres (35,856 ft) depth.[6] Leggo returned with good photography of amphipods feeding on the lander’s mackerel bait and with sample amphipods. Falknor departed the Challenger Deep on 19 December en route the Marianas Trench Marine National Monument to the Sirena Deep. RV Falkor had both a Kongsberg EM302 and EM710 multibeam echosounder for bathymetry, and an Oceaneering C-Nav 3050 global navigation satellite system receiver, capable of calculating geodetic positioning with an accuracy better than 5 cm (2.0 in) horizontally and 15 cm (5.9 in) vertically.[7][8]

US Coast Guard Cutter Sequoia (WLB 215)

2015 – USCGC Sequoia – From 10–13 July 2015, the Guam-based 1,930-ton US Coast Guard Cutter Sequoia (WLB 215) hosted a team of researchers, under chief scientist Robert P. Dziak, from the NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL), the University of Washington, and Oregon State University, in deploying PMEL's "Full-Ocean Depth Mooring," a 45-meter-long moored deep-ocean hydrophone and pressure sensor array into the western basin of the Challenger Deep. A 6-hour descent into the western basin anchored the array at 10,854.7 metres (35,613 ft) ±8.9 m (29 ft) of water depth, at 11°20.127′N 142°12.0233′E / 11.335450°N 142.2003883°E / 11.335450; 142.2003883, about 1 km northeast of Sumner's deepest depth, recorded in 2010.[9] After 16 weeks, the moored array was recovered 2–4 Nov 2015. "Observed sound sources included earthquake signals (T phases), baleen and odontocete cetacean vocalizations, ship propeller sounds, airguns, active sonar and the passing of a Category 4 typhoon." The science team described their results as "...the first multiday, broadband record of ambient sound at Challenger Deep, as well as only the fifth direct depth measurement."[10]

2016 – RV Xiangyanghong 09 – The 3,536-ton research vessel Xiangyanghong 09 deployed on Leg II of the 37th China Cruise Dayang (DY37II) sponsored by the National Deep Sea Center, Qingdao and the Institute of Deep-Sea Science and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences (Sanya, Hainan), to the Challenger Deep western basin area (11°22' N, 142°25' E) 4 June – 12 July 2016. As the mother ship for China’s manned deep submersible Jiaolong, the expedition carried out an exploration of the Challenger Deep to investigate the geological, biological, and chemical characteristics of the hadal zone. The diving area for this leg was on the southern slope of the Challenger Deep, at depths from about 6,300 to 8,300 metres (20,669 to 27,231 ft). The submersible completed nine manned dives on the northern backarc and south area (Pacific plate) of the Challenger Deep to depths from 5,500 to 6,700 metres (18,045 to 21,982 ft). During the cruise, Jiaolong regularly deployed gas-tight samplers to collect water near the sea bottom. In a test of navigational proficiency, Jiaolong used an Ultra-Short Base Line (USBL) positioning system at a depth more than 6,600 metres (21,654 ft) to retrieve sampling bottles.[11]

2016 – RV Tansuo 01 – From 22 June – 12 August 2016 (cruises 2016S1 & 2016S2), the Chinese Academy of Sciences' 6,250-ton submersible support ship Tansuo 1 (meaning: to explore) on her maiden voyage deployed to the Challenger Deep from her home port of Sanya, Hainan Island. On 12 July 2016, the ROV Haidou-1 dove to a depth of 10,767 metres (35,325 ft) in the Challenger Deep area. They also cast a free-drop lander, 9,000 metres (29,528 ft) rated free-drop ocean-floor seismic instruments (deployed to 7,731 metres (25,364 ft)), obtained sediment core samples, and collected over 2000 biological samples from depth ranging from 5,000–10,000 metres (16,404–32,808 ft).[12] The Tansuo 01 operated along the 142°30.00' longitude line, about 30 nmi east of the earlier DY37II cruise survey (see Xiangyanghong 09 above).[13]

German maritime research vessel Sonne

2016 – RV Sonne – In November 2016 sonar mapping of the Challenger Deep area was conducted by the Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ)/GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel aboard the 8,554-ton Deep Ocean Research Vessel Sonne. The results were reported in 2017. Using a Kongsberg Maritime EM 122 multi-beam echosounder system coupled to positioning equipment that can determine latitude and longitude the team determined that the Challenger Deep has a maximum depth of 10,925 m (35,843 ft) at 11°19.945′N 142°12.123′E / 11.332417°N 142.202050°E / 11.332417; 142.202050 (11°19′57″N 142°12′07″E / 11.332417°N 142.20205°E / 11.332417; 142.20205), with an estimated vertical uncertainty of ±12 m (39 ft) at one standard deviation (≈ 68.3%) confidence level. The analysis of the sonar survey offered a 100 metres (328 ft) by 100 metres (328 ft) grid resolution at bottom depth, so small dips in the bottom that are less than that size would be difficult to detect from the 0.5 by 1 degree sonar-emissions at the sea surface. Each 0.5-degree beam width sonar ping expands to cover a circular area about 96 metres (315 ft) in diameter at 11,000 metres (36,089 ft) depth.[14] The horizontal position of the grid point has an uncertainty of ±50 to 100 m (164 to 328 ft), depending on along-track or across-track direction. This depth (59 m (194 ft)) and position (about 410 m (1,345 ft) to the northeast) measurements differ significantly from the deepest point determined by the Gardner et al. (2014) study.[15][16][17] The observed depth discrepancy with the 2010 sonar mapping and Gardner et al 2014 study are related to the application of differing sound velocity profiles, which are essential for accurate depth determination. Sonne used CTD casts about 1.6 km west of the deepest sounding to near the bottom of the Challenger Deep that were used for sound velocity profile calibration and optimization. Likewise the impact of using different projections, datum and ellipsoids during data acquisition can cause positional discrepancies between surveys.[18]

2016 – RV Shyian 3 – In December 2016, the CAS 3,300-ton research vessel Shiyan 3 deployed 33 broadband seismometers onto both the backarc northwest of the Challenger Deep, and onto the near southern Pacific Plate to the southeast, at depths of up to 8,137 m (26,696 ft). This cruise was part of a $12 million Chinese-U.S. initiative, led by co-leader Jian Lin of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution; a 5-year effort (2017–2021) to image in fine detail the rock layers in and around the Challenger Deep.[19]

2016 – RV Zhang Jian – The newly launched 4,800-ton research vessel (and mothership for the Rainbow Fish series of deep submersibles), the Zhang Jian departed Shanghai on 3 December. Their cruise was to test three new deep-sea landers, one unmanned search submersible and the new Rainbow Fish 11,000-meter manned deep submersible, all capable of diving to 10,000 meters. From 25 to 27 December, three deep-sea landing devices descended into the trench. The first Rainbow Fish lander took photographs, the second took sediment samples, and the third took biological samples. All three landers reached over 10,000 meters, and the third device brought back 103 amphipods. Cui Weicheng, director of Hadal Life Science Research Center at Shanghai Ocean University, led the team of scientists to carry out research at the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench. The ship is part of China’s national marine research fleet but is owned by a Shanghai marine technology company.[20]

2017 – RV Tansuo-1 – CAS' Institute of Deep-sea Science and Engineering sponsored Tansuo-1's return to the Challenger Deep 20 January – 5 February 2017 (cruise TS03) with baited traps for capture of fish and other macrobiology near the Challenger and Sirena Deeps. On 29 January they recovered photography and samples of a new species of snailfish from the Northern slope of the Challenger Deep at 7,581 metres (24,872 ft), newly designated "Pseudoliparis swirei".[21] They also placed four or more CTD casts into the central and eastern basins of the Challenger Deep, as part of the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE).[22]

2017 – RV Shinyo Maru – Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology dispatched the research vessel Shinyo Maru to the Mariana Trench 20 January – 5 February 2017 with baited traps for capture of fish and other macrobiology near the Challenger and Sirena Deeps. On 29 January they recovered photography and samples of a new species of snailfish from the Northern slope of the Challenger Deep at 7,581 metres (24,872 ft), which has been newly designated Pseudoliparis swirei.[23]

2017 – RV Kexue 3 – Water samples were collected at the Challenger Deep from 11 layers of the Mariana Trench in March 2017. Seawater samples from 4 to 4,000 m were collected by Niskin Bottles mounted to a Seabird SBE25 CTDs; whereas water samples at depths from 6,050 m to 8,320 m were collected by a self-designed acoustic-controlled full ocean depth water samplers. In this study, scientists studied the RNA of pico- and nano-plankton from the surface to the hadal zone.[24]

2017 – RV Kairei – JAMSTEC deployed Kairei to the Challenger Deep in May 2017 for the express purpose of testing the new full-ocean depth ROV UROV11K (Underwater ROV 11,000-meter-capable), as cruise KR 17-08C, under chief scientist Takashi Murashima. The cruise title was: "Sea trial of a full depth ROV UROV11K system in the Mariana Trench". UROV11K carried a new 4K High Definition video camera system, and new sensors to monitor the hydrogen-sulfide, methane, oxygen, and hydrogen content of the water. Unfortunately, on UROV11K's ascent from 10,899 metres (35,758 ft) (at about 11°22.30’N 142°35.8 E, in the eastern basin) on 14 May 2017, the ROV’s buoyancy failed at 5,320 metres (17,454 ft) depth, and all efforts to retrieve the ROV were unsuccessful. The rate of descent and drift is not available, but the ROV bottomed to the east of the deepest waters of the eastern basin as revealed by the ship's maneuvering on 14 May. Murashima then directed the Kairei to a location about 35 nmi east of the eastern basin of the Challenger Deep to test a new "Compact Hadal Lander" which made three descents to depths from 7,498 to 8,178 m for testing the Sony 4K camera and for photography of fish and other macro-biologics.[25]

2018 – RV Shen Kuo – On its maiden voyage, the 2,150-ton twin-hulled scientific research vessel Shen Kuo (also Shengkuo, Shen Ko, or Shen Quo), departed Shanghai on 25 November 2018 and returned 8 January 2019. They operated in the Mariana Trench area, and on 13 December tested a system of underwater navigation at a depth exceeding 10,000 metres, during a field trial of the Tsaihungyuy (ultra-short baseline) system. Project leader Tsui Veichen stated that, with the tsaihungyuy equipment at depth, it was possible to obtain a signal and determine exact geolocations. The research team from Shanghai Ocean University and Westlake University was led by Cui Weicheng, director of Shanghai Ocean University’s Hadal Science and Technology Research Center (HSRC).[citation needed][26] The equipment to be tested included a manned submersible (NOT full ocean depth – depth achieved not available) and two deep-sea landers, all capable of diving to depths of 10,000 meters, as well as a ROV that can go to 4,500 meters. They took photographs and obtained samples from the trench, including water, sediment, macro-organisms and micro-organisms. "If we can take photos of fish more than 8,145 meters under water," said Cui, "we will break the current world record. We will test our new equipment including the landing devices. They are second generation. The first generation could only take samples in one spot per dive, but this new second generation can take samples at different depths in one dive. We also tested the ultra short baseline acoustic positioning system on the manned submersible, the future of underwater navigation."[citation needed]

General Oceanographic RV Sally Ride

2019 – RV Sally Ride – In November 2019, as cruise SR1916, a NIOZ team led by chief scientist Hans van Haren, with Scripps technicians, deployed to the Challenger Deep aboard the 2,641-ton research vessel Sally Ride, to recover a mooring line from the western basin of the Challenger Deep. The 7 km (4.3 mi) long mooring line in the Challenger Deep consisted of top-floatation positioned around 4 km (2.5 mi) depth, two sections of Dyneema neutrally buoyant 6 mm (0.2 in) line, two Benthos acoustic releases and two sections of self-contained instrumentation to measure and store current, salinity and temperature. Around the 6 km (3.7 mi) depth position two current meters were mounted below a 200 m (656 ft) long array of 100 high-resolution temperature sensors. In the lower position starting 600 m (1,969 ft) above the sea floor 295 specially designed high-resolution temperature sensors were mounted, the lowest of which was 8 m (26 ft) above the trench floor. The mooring line was deployed and left by the NIOZ team during the November 2016 RV Sonne expedition with the intention to be recovered in late 2018 by Sonne. The acoustic commanded release mechanism near the bottom of the Challenger Deep failed at the 2018 attempt. RV Sally Ride was made available exclusively for a final attempt to retrieve the mooring line before the release mechanism batteries expired.[27] Sally Ride arrived at the Challenger Deep on 2 November. This time a 'deep release unit' lowered by one of Sally Ride's winch-cables to around 1,000 m depth pinged release commands and managed to contact the near-bottom releases. After being nearly three years submerged, mechanical problems had occurred in 15 of the 395 temperature sensors. The first results indicate the occurrence of internal waves in the Challenger Deep.[28]

Study of the depth and location of the Challenger Deep[edit]

Since May 2000 with the help of non-degraded signal satellite navigation, civilian surface vessels equipped with professional dual-frequency capable satellite navigation equipment can measure and establish their geodetic position with an accuracy in the order of meters to tens of meters whilst the western, central and eastern basins are kilometers apart.[29]

GEBCO 2019 bathymetry of the Challenger Deep and Sirena Deep.
(a) Mariana Trench multibeam bathymetry data gridded at 75 m acquired on‐board the DSSV Pressure Drop overtop the GEBCO 2019 source grid (as shown in Figure 1) and the complete GEBCO 2019 grid with hillshade. EM 124 black contours at 500 m intervals, GEBCO 2019 grey contours at 1,000 m intervals. The white circle indicates the deepest point and submersible dive location, the white triangle indicates the submersible dive location from Sirena Deep, the red spot was the deepest point derived by van Haren et al., (2017).
(b) Challenger Deep.
(c) Sirena Deep.
Bathymetric cross sections A’–A” and B’–B” over Challenger Deep and Sirena Deep displayed in (d) and (e), respectively.
  1. ^ Biogeosciences at the Challenger Deep, the deepest point of the world: relict organisms and their relations to biogeochemical cycles, PRELIMINARY REPORT FOR YOKOSUKA Cruise no. YK 10-16, Challenger Deep Mariana trench, Pacific Ocean, 20 November – 6 December 2010, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), Cruise Report
  2. ^ In situ experimental & sampling study to understand abyssal biodiversity and biogeochemical cycles, R/V Yokosuka Cruise Report YK13-12, In situ experimental & sampling study to understand abyssal biodiversity and biogeochemical cycles, western equatorial Pacific; 7–30 Nov 2013, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), Cruise Report
  3. ^ Inoue, T. et.al, Crawler System for Deep Sea ROVs, Marine Technology Society Journal, Winter 2009, Volume 43, No. 5, pp. 97–104.
  4. ^ RV Kairei Cruise Report, KR14-01, Trench biosphere expedition for the Challenger Deep, Mariana Trench, Jan 6–20, 2014.
  5. ^ Expanding Mariana Trench Perspectives Cruise Report
  6. ^ Expanding Mariana Trench Perspectives
  7. ^ C-Nav® Positioning Solutions, Oceaneering International, Inc.
  8. ^ C-Nav 3050 User Guide, Oceaneering International, Inc.
  9. ^ Dziak, R.P. et.al. NOAA brings back first recordings from the deepest part of the ocean; 16 May 2017
  10. ^ Dziak, Robert P. et.al., Ambient Sound at Challenger Deep, Mariana Trench, Oceanography, Vol. 30, no. 2, June 2017
  11. ^ Xiang Gao, et.al., Target Deployment and Retrieval Using JIAOLONG Manned Submersible in the Depth of 6600 m in Mariana Trench, China Ocean Engineering, 2017, 31(5): 618–623
  12. ^ Wen-Li Li, et.al., Periodic and Spatial Spreading of Alkanes and Alcanivorax Bacteria in Deep Waters of the Mariana Trench; Applied and Environmental Microbiology Jan 2019, 85 (3)
  13. ^ What China's submersible mother ship takes back from Mariana Trench, New China TV, 26 Aug 2016
  14. ^ Product description Kongsberg Maritime EM 122 Multibeam Echo Sounder
  15. ^ van Haren, H.; Berndt, C.; Klaucke, I. (2017). "Ocean mixing in deep-sea trenches: New insights from the Challenger Deep, Mariana Trench. Deep-Sea Research, Part I. Oceanographic Research Papers, 129, 1–9" (PDF). www.vliz.be.
  16. ^ Christian Berndt GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel (2016). "RV SONNE 252 Cruise Report / Fahrtbericht Yokohama: 05.11.2016 Nouméa: 18.12.2016" (PDF). www.portal-forschungsschiffe.de.
  17. ^ Berndt, Christian; Klaucke, Ingo; Wölfl, Anne-Cathrin (2018). "Bathymetry". Raw multibeam EM122 data: transits of SONNE cruise SO252 (Pacific). PANGAEA (Data Set). PANGAEA – Data Publisher for Earth & Environmental Science. doi:10.1594/PANGAEA.896077. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
  18. ^ Stewart, Heather & Jamieson, Alan. (2019). The five deeps: The location and depth of the deepest place in each of the world's oceans. Earth-Science Reviews. 197. 102896
  19. ^ Expedition probes ocean trench’s deepest secrets By Jane QiuJan. 11, 2017
  20. ^ Unmanned submersibles descend 10,000 meters underwater By Xinhua, Thursday, 29 December 2016
  21. ^ Gerringer et al. (2017) – Gerringer M. E., Linley T. D., Jamieson A. J., Goetze E., Drazen J. C. (2017). Pseudoliparis swirei sp. nov.: A newly-discovered hadal snailfish (Scorpaeniformes: Liparidae) from the Mariana Trench. Zootaxa, 4358 (1): 161–77
  22. ^ Caijing Huang et.al, "Seasonal variability of water characteristics in the Challenger Deep observed by four cruises."
  23. ^ Pseudoliparis swirei sp. nov.: A newly-discovered hadal snailfish (Scorpaeniformes: Liparidae) from the Mariana Trench Gerringer et al. (2017) – Gerringer M. E., Linley T. D., Jamieson A. J., Goetze E., Drazen J. C. (2017). Zootaxa, 4358 (1): 161–77
  24. ^ Insight Into the Pico- and Nano-Phytoplankton Communities in the Deepest Biosphere, the Mariana Trench Original Research ARTICLE Front. Microbiol., 26 September 2018 doi:10.3389/fmicb.2018.02289
  25. ^ R/V KAIREI Final Report, KR17-08C, Sea trial of a full depth ROV "UROV11K" system in the Mariana Trench, 2017/05/05 – 2017/05/25.
  26. ^ [Shanghai newspaper article to be adding ref here]
  27. ^ van Haren, H., 2019, Cruise report PAC16: R/V Sally Ride cruise SR1916, 31 October – 4 November 2019, NIOZ, 10 pp.
  28. ^ Successful mooring recovery from Challenger Deep (Mariana Trench) NIOZ, Friday 29 November 2019
  29. ^ "GPS.gov: GPS Accuracy". www.gps.gov. Archived from the original on January 4, 2018. Retrieved 2018-01-17.
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