User:Zach Alexander/Sandbox

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Section of psychiatry; I'm going to expand on it and use to start history of psychiatry. Zach 22:13, 12 November 2007 (UTC)

History[edit]

Many consider Philippe Pinel to be the father of modern psychiatry.

Ancient psychiatry[edit]

Starting in the 5th century BC, mental disorders, especially those disorders with psychotic traits, were considered supernatural in origin.[1] This view existed throughout ancient Greece and Rome.[1] Early manuals written about mental disorders were created by the Greeks.[2] In 4th century BC, Hippocrates theorized that physiological abnormalities may be the root of mental disorders.[1] However further explorations of this perspective ceased shortly thereafter following the fall of the Roman Empire.[1] Religious leaders and others returned to using early versions of exorcisms to treat mental disorders which often utilized cruel, harsh, and other barbarous methods.[1]

Middle ages through the 18th century[edit]

Psychiatric hospitals have existed to treat mental disorders since the Middle Ages but were utilized only as custodial institutions and did not provide any type of treatment.[3] Founded in the 13th century, Bethlem Royal Hospital in London is one of the oldest psychiatric hospitals.[3] By 1547 the City of London acquired the hospital and continued its function until 1948.[4] In 1656, Louis XIV of France created a public system of hospitals for those suffering from mental disorders, but like in England, no real treatment was being applied.[4] In 1758 English physician William Battie wrote the Treatise on Madness which called for treatments to be utilized in asylums.[5] Thirty years later the new ruling monarch in England, George III, was known to be suffering from a mental disorder.[1] Following the King's remission in 1789, mental illness was seen as something which could be treated and cured.[1] By 1792 French physician Philippe Pinel introduced humane treatment approaches to those suffering from mental disorders.[1] William Tuke adopted the methods outlined by Pinel and that same year Tuke opened the York Retreat in England.[1] That institution became known as a model throughout the world for humane and moral treatment of patients suffering from mental disorders.[6]

19th century[edit]

In 1800 the number of individuals in asylums in all of England and France was only in the low hundreds.[7] By the late 1890s and early 1900s this number skyrocketed to the hundreds of thousands.[7] The United States housed 150,000 patients in mental hospitals by 1904.[7] German speaking countries housed more than 400 public and private sector asylums.[7] These asylums were critical to the evolution of psychiatry as they provided a universal platform of practice throughout the world.[7] Universities oftentimes played a part in the administration of the asylums.[8] Due to the relationship between the universities and asylums, scores of competitive psychiatrists were being molded in Germany.[8] Germany became known as the world leader in psychiatry during the nineteenth century.[7] The country possessed more than 20 separate universities all competing with each other for scientific advancement.[7] However, because of Germany's individual states and the lack of national regulation of asylums, the country had no organized centralization of asylums or psychiatry.[7] Britain, like Germany, also lacked a centralized organization for the administration of asylums.[9] This deficit hindered the diffusion of new ideas in medicine and psychiatry.[9] By 1838, France created a national law which regulated both the mechanisms for admission into asylums and organized asylum services across the country.[10] By 1840 asylums existing as therapeutic institutions existed throughout Europe and the United States.[11]

Emil Kraepelin studied and promoted ideas of disease classification for mental disorders.

However, the new and dominating ideas that mental illness could be "conquered" during the mid-nineteenth century all came crashing down.[11] Psychiatrists and asylums were being pressured by an ever increasing patient population.[11] The average number of patients in asylums in the United States jumped 927%.[11] Numbers were similar in England and Germany.[11] Overcrowding was rampant in France where asylums would commonly take in double their maximum capacity.[12] Increases in asylum populations may have been a result of the transfer of care from families and poorhouses, but the specific reasons as to why the increase occurred is still debated today.[13][14] No matter the cause, the pressure on asylums from the increase was taking its toll on the asylums and psychiatry as a specialty. Asylums were once again turning into custodial institutions[15] and the reputation of psychiatry in the medical world had hit an extreme low.[16]

20th century[edit]

Disease classification and rebirth of biological psychiatry[edit]

The 20th century introduced a new psychiatry into the world. The different perspectives of looking at mental disorders began to be introduced. The career and beginnings of Emil Kraepelin somewhat model this hiatus of psychiatry between the different disciplines.[17] Kraepelin initially was very attracted to psychology and ignored the ideas of anatomical psychiatry.[17] Following his acceptance for a professorship of psychiatry, and later his work in a university psychiatric clinic, Kraepelin's insterest in pure psychology began to fade and he introduced a plan of a more comprehensive psychiatry.[18][19] Kraepelin also began to study and promote the ideas of disease classification for mental disorders, an idea introduced by Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum.[19] The initial ideas behind biological psychiatry, stating that these different disorders were all biological in nature, evolved into a new idea of "nerves" and psychiatry became a sort of rough neurology or neuropsychiatry.[20] Following Sigmund Freud's death, ideas stemming from psychoanalytic theory also began to take root.[21] The psychoanalytic theory became popular among psychiatrists because it allowed the patients to be treated in private practices instead of asylums.[21] However the progress of psychiatry by the 1970s turned psychoanalytic theory into a marginal school of thought within the field.[21]

Otto Loewi's work led to the identification of the first neurotransmitter, acetylcholine.

This period of time saw the reemergence of biological psychiatry. Psychopharmacology became an integral part of psychiatry starting with Otto Loewi's discovery of the first neurotransmitter, acetylcholine.[22] Neuroimaging was first utilized as a tool for psychiatry in the 1980s.[23] The discovery of chlorpromazine's effectiveness in treating schizophrenia in 1952 revolutionized treatment of the disease, [24] as did lithium carbonate's ability to stabilize mood highs and lows in bipolar disorder in 1948.[25] While psychosocial issues were still seen as valid, psychotherapy was seen to be their "cure."[26] Genetics were once again thought to play a role in mental illness.[22] Molecular biology opened the door for specific genes causing mental disorders to be identified.[22] By 1995 genes causing schizophrenia had been identified on chromosome 6 and those genes responsible for bipolar disorder on chromosomes 18 and 21.[22]

Anti-psychiatry and deinstitutionalization[edit]

The introduction of psychiatric medications and the use of laboratory tests altered the doctor-patient relationship between psychiatrists and their patients.[27] Psychiatry's shift to the hard sciences had been interpreted as a lack of concern for patients.[27] Anti-psychiatry had become more prevalent in the late twentieth century due to this and publications in the media which conceptualized mental disorders as myths.[28] Others in the movement argued that psychiatry was a form of social control and demanded that institutionalized psychiatric care, stemming from Pinel's thereapeutic asylum, be abolished.[29] Incidents of physical abuse by psychiatrists took place during the reign of some totalitarian regimes as part of a system to enforce political control with some of the abuse even continuing to our present day.[30] Historical examples of the abuse of psychiatry took place in Nazi Germany [31], in the Soviet Union under Psikhushka, and in the apartheid system in South Africa.[32]

Members of the Church of Scientology hold an anti-psychiatry demonstration in 2005.

Electroconvulsive therapy was one treatment that the anti-psychiatry movement wanted eliminated.[33] They alleged that electroconvulsive therapy damaged the brain and it was used as a tool for discipline.[33] While there is no evidence that brain damage was a result of electronconvulsive therapy[34][35][36], there have been isolated incidents where the use of electroconvulsive therapy was threatened to keep the patients "in line."[33] The prevalence of psychiatric medication helped initiate deinstitutionalization,[37] the process of discharging patients from psychiatric hospitals to the community.[38] The pressure from the anti-psychiatry movements and the ideology of community treatment from the medical arena helped sustain deinstitutionalization.[37] A mere thirty three years after deinstitutionalization started in the United States, only 19% of the patients in state hospitals remained.[37] Mental health professionals envisioned a process wherein patients would be released into communities where they could participate in a normal life while living in a therapeutic atmosphere.[37]

Transinstitutionalization and the aftermath[edit]

In 1963, United States president John F. Kennedy introduced legislation delegating the National Institute of Mental Health to administer Community Mental Health Centers for those being discharged from state psychiatric hospitals.[37] Later, though, the Community Mental Health Center's focus was diverted to provide psychotherapy sessions for those suffering from acute and/or mild mental disorders.[37] Ultimately there were no arrangements made for actively ill patients who were being discharged from hospitals.[37] Instead of being treated by the "community," those suffering from mental disorders drifted into homelessness or ended up in prisons and jails.[37][39] Studies found that 33% of the homeless population and 14% of inmates in prisons and jails were already diagnosed with a mental illness.[37][40]

In 1972, psychologist David Rosenhan published the Rosenhan experiment, a study analyzing the validity of psychiatric diagnoses.[41] The study arranged for eight individuals with no history of psychopathology to attempt admission into psychiatric hospitals. The individuals included a graduate student, psychologists, an artist, a housewife, and two physicians, including one psychiatrist. All eight individuals were admitted with a diagnosis of schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. Psychiatrists then attempted to treat the individuals using psychiatric medication. All eight were discharged within 7 to 52 days. Rosenhan's study concluded that individuals with no presence of mental disorders could not be distinguished from those suffering from mental disorders.[41] While critics such as Robert Spitzer placed doubt on the validity and credibility of the study, they also conceded that the consistency of psychiatric diagnoses needed improvement.[42]

Psychiatry, like many medical specialties, has a continuing, significant demand for research investigating its related diseases, classifications, origins, and treatments.[43] Psychiatry falls into biology's fundamental belief that disease and health are different elements of an individual's adaptation to an environment.[44] But psychiatry also recognizes that the environment of the human species is complex and includes physical, cultural, and relational elements.[44] In addition to external factors, the human brain must recognize or organize an individual's hopes, fears, desires, fantasies and feelings.[44] Psychiatry's difficult task is the attempt to envelop the understanding of these factors so that they can be studied both clinically and physiologically.[44]

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i Elkes, A. & Thorpe, J.G. (1967). A Summary of Psychiatry. London: Faber & Faber, p. 13.
  2. ^ Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 1. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  3. ^ a b Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 4. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  4. ^ a b Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 5. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  5. ^ Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 9. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  6. ^ Borthwick, A.; Holman, C.; Kennard, D.; McFetridge, M.; Messruther, K.; Wilkes, J. (2001). The relevance of moral treatment to contemporary mental health care. Journal of Mental Health, 10, 427-439.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 34. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  8. ^ a b Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 35. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  9. ^ a b Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 41. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  10. ^ Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 40. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  11. ^ a b c d e Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 46. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  12. ^ Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 47. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  13. ^ Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 48. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  14. ^ Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 49. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  15. ^ Rothman, D.J. (1990). The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic. Boston: Little Brown, p. 239. ISBN 978-0-316-75745-4
  16. ^ Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 65. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  17. ^ a b Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 101. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  18. ^ Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 102. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  19. ^ a b Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 103. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  20. ^ Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 1114. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  21. ^ a b c Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 145. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  22. ^ a b c d Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 246. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  23. ^ Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 270. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  24. ^ Turner T. (2007). "Unlocking psychosis". Brit J Med. 334 (suppl): s7.
  25. ^ Cade, JFJ; Lithium salts in the treatment of psychotic excitement. Med J Aust 1949, 36, p349-352
  26. ^ Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 239. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  27. ^ a b Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 273. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  28. ^ Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 274. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  29. ^ Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 277. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  30. ^ Sunny Y. Lu & Viviana B. Galli, The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law
  31. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12817666&dopt=Abstract
  32. ^ http://www.info.gov.za/speeches/1997/06160x76497.htm
  33. ^ a b c Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 282. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  34. ^ Weiner, R.D. (1984). Does ECT cause brain damage? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 7, 153.
  35. ^ Meldrum, B.S. (1986). Neuropathological consequences of chemically and electrically induced seizures. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 462, 18693.
  36. ^ Dwork, A.J.; Arango, V.; Underwood, M.; Ilievski, B.; Rosoklija, G.; Sackeim, H.A.; Lisanby, S.H. (2004). Absence of histological lesions in primate models of ECT and magnetic seizure therapy. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 576-578.
  37. ^ a b c d e f g h i Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 280. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  38. ^ Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 279. ISBN 978-0-47-124531-5
  39. ^ Slovenko, R. (2003). The transinstitutionalization of the mentally ill. Ohio University Law Review, 29, 641.
  40. ^ Torrey, E.F. (1988). Nowhere to Go: The Tragic Odyssey of the Homeless Mentally Ill. New York: Harper and Row, pp.25-29, 126-128. ISBN 978-0-06-015993-1
  41. ^ a b Rosenhan, D. (1973). On being sane in insane places. Science, 179, 250-258.
  42. ^ Spitzer, R.L.; Lilienfeld, S.O.; Miller, M.B. (2005). Rosenhan revisited: The scientific credibility of Lauren Slater's pseudopatient diagnosis study. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 193, 734-739.
  43. ^ Lyness, J.M. (1997). Psychiatric Pearls. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company. ISBN 978-0-80-360280-9
  44. ^ a b c d Guze, S. B. (1992). Why Psychiatry is a Branch of Medicine. New York: Oxford University Press, p 130. ISBN 978-0-19-507420-8.
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