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Shibutsu shūgō

Typical Shinto shrine with paper streamers made out of unprocessed hemp fibre.

Main article: Shinbutsu shūgō

One of the peculiarities of religion in Japan is the fact that the two dominant religions, Buddhism and Shinto, form a single religious system. Officially the amalgamation of the two ceased in 1868 with the Shinbutsu bunri (the attempt to separate kami worship and Buddhism), temples and shrines were separated by law with the Kami and Buddhism Separation Order (神仏判然令, Shinbutsu Hanzenrei).

The two religions do not simply coexist, but integrate each other, serving different needs of their faithful. In general, the first specializes in services pertaining death, and Buddhist temples are primarily cemeteries. Shinto to the contrary has a strong taboo towards death, which is seen as defiling, and specializes in activities pertaining life, like ceremonies of coming of age (e.g. the shichigosan, the welcoming of the new year (hatsumōde) and, most importantly, weddings.

Shinto

Main article: Shinto

See also: Association of Shinto Shrines

Shinto, meaning "the way of the gods", is widely practiced in Japan together with Buddhism, a religion with which it has a symbiotic relationship. and is commonly described as Japan's indigenous religion, but this description is seen as questionable by much recent scholarship. While no one questions the existence since the beginning of written history of kami worship, there is no agreement among specialists of religion in Japan about the nature of modern Shinto and the exact moment of its birth.

According to some scholars, for example Hirai Naofusa in Japan and Joseph Kitagawa in the United States, Shinto is the indigenous religion of Japan, has existed as such continuously since pre-history, and consists of all the peculiarly Japanese rituals and beliefs shaped by Japanese history from prehistory to the present. The term "Shinto" itself was coined in the 6th century to differentiate the loosely organized local religion from imported Buddhism.

The opposing view belongs to Japanese historian Toshio Kuroda (and his supporters) who, in a famous article ("Shinto in the History of Japanese Religion," published in English in 1981), has argued that Shinto as an independent religion was born only in the modern period after emerging in the Middle Ages as an offshoot of Buddhism. Kuroda's main argument is that Shinto as an autonomous religion is a Meiji era invention of Japanese nationalist ideologues.

In either case, modern Shinto originated in prehistoric times as a religion with a respect for nature and for particular sacred sites. These sites may have originally been used to worship the sun, rock formations, trees and even sounds. Each of these was associated with a deity, or kami, and a complex polytheistic religion developed. Shinto worship of kami is performed at Shinto shrines. Especially important is the act of purification before visiting these shrines.

There are a variety of denominations within Shinto. Shinto has no single founder and no canon, but the Nihongi and Kojiki contain a record of Japanese mythology. Individual Shinto sects, such as Tenrikyo and Konkokyo, often have a unique dogma or leader. Shinto began to fall out of fashion after the arrival of Buddhism, but soon Shinto and Buddhism began to be practiced in tandem. On the sites of Shintō shrines, Buddhist temples were also built.

Before 1868, there were three main forms of Shinto: Shrine Shinto, the most popular type; Folk (or Popular) Shinto, practiced by the peasants; and Imperial Household Shinto, practiced by the imperial family of Japan. In the 18th and 19th centuries, independent Shinto sects – Sect Shinto – formed, some of which were very radical, such as the monotheistic Tenrikyo. These became known as the Shinto Sects or the New Religions. Following the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Shinto and Buddhism were forcefully separated. The Emperor Meiji made Shinto the official religion, creating a form of Shinto known as State Shinto by merging Shrine, Folk, and Imperial Household Shinto. The radical Sect Shinto was separated from State Shinto. Under Meiji, Japan became a moderate theocracy, with shrines under government control. Shinto soon became a reason for Japanese nationalism. After Japan took over Korea and Taiwan, State Shinto became the official religion of those countries as well.

During World War II, the government forced every subject to practice State Shinto and admit that the Emperor was divine. Those who opposed the Imperial cult, including Oomoto and Soka Gakkai, were persecuted. When the United States occupied Japan in 1945, the shrines were taken out of government control, and State Shinto was abolished. Shrine, Folk, and Imperial Shinto again became separate, and Sect Shinto further distanced itself from mainstream Shinto.

Buddhism

Main article: Buddhism in Japan

Buddhism first arrived in Japan in the 6th century from the Southern part of the kingdom of Baekje on the Korean peninsula. The Baekje king sent the Japanese emperor a picture of the Buddha and some sutras. Japanese aristocrats built Buddhist statues and temples in the capital at Nara, and then in the later capital at Heian (now Kyoto).

Buddhism is divided into three forms: the orthodox and impersonal Theravada Buddhism, which is prevalent in India and most of Southeast Asia; the more personal Mahayana Buddhism, which spread to China, Tibet, Vietnam, and ultimately to Korea and Japan; and Vajrayana Buddhism. From the beginning, the largest form of Buddhism in Japan was the Mahayana school. According to the Agency of Cultural Affairs, 91 million Japanese identify themselves as Buddhist.

The six Buddhist sects initially established in Nara are today together known as "Nara Buddhism" and are relatively small. When the capital moved to Heian, more forms of Buddhism arrived from China, including the still-popular Shingon, an esoteric form of Buddhism similar to Tibet's Vajrayana Buddhism, and Tendai, a monastic conservative form known better by its Chinese name, Tiantai.

When the shogunate took power in the 12th century and the administrative capital moved to Kamakura, more forms of Buddhism arrived. The most popular was Zen, which became the most popular type of Mahayana Buddhism of the time period. Two schools of Zen were established, Rinzai and Sōtō; a third, Ōbaku, formed in 1661.

The Toshodaiji was an early Buddhist temple in Nara.

Another form of Buddhism known as Jodo-kyo, or Pure Land Buddhism, arrived in the Kamakura period. Pure Land Buddhism emphasizes the role of Amitabha Buddha and promises that reciting the phrase "Namu Amida Butsu" upon death will result in being removed by Amitabha to the "Western Paradise" or "Pure Land", and then to Nirvana. Jodo-kyo attracted the merchant and farmer classes. After Honen, Jodo-kyo's head missionary in Japan, died, the form split into two schools: Jodo-shu, which focuses on repeating the phrase many times, and the more liberal Jodo Shinshu, which claims that only saying the phrase once with a pure heart is necessary. Today, many Japanese adhere to Nishi Honganji-ha, a conservative sect of Jodo Shinshu.

The monk Nichiren established a more radical form of Buddhism, Nichiren Buddhism, which praised the Lotus Sutra. Nichiren's teaching was revolutionary, and the shogun distrusted him; when Nichiren predicted that the Mongols would invade Japan, the shogun exiled him. Nichiren was a progressive, the first Japanese thinker to declare that women could gain enlightenment. Nichiren Buddhism is the second largest Buddhist sect in Japan today. Sub-sects of Nichiren Buddhism include Nichiren-shu, Nichiren Shoshu and Soka Gakkai, a controversial denomination whose political wing forms the conservative New Komeito Party, Japan's third largest political party.

In modern times, Japanese society has become very secular, and religion in general has become less important. However, many Japanese remain nominally Buddhist and are connected to a local Buddhist temple, although they may not worship regularly. Buddhism remains far more popular in traditional rural areas than in modern urban areas and suburbs. For instance, while some 90% of rural households include a Buddhist altar (Butsudan), the rate drops to 60% or lower in urban areas.

Notes

• John Breen, Mark Teeuwen (editors) (July 2000). Shinto in History: Ways of the Kami. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0824823634. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
• Inoue Nobutaka, ed. (August 10, 2004). Shinto: A Short History. RoutledgeCurzon. p. 240. ISBN 978-0415319133.
• Kamiya, Michinori (2000/08). Fukaku Aruku - Kamakura Shiseki Sansaku Vol. 1 (in Japanese). Kamakura: Kamakura Shunshūsha. ISBN 4774003409. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
• Kitagawa, Joseph (1987). On Understanding Japanese Religion. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691102290.
• Toshio, Kuroda; Dobbins, James C.; Gay, Suzanne (1981). "Shinto in the History of Japanese Religion". Journal of Japanese Studies. 7 (1) (Journal of Japanese Studies ed.). Society for Japanese Studies: 1–21. doi:10.2307/132163. JSTOR 132163.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
• Nishiyama, Shigeru. "Research on Shinto - 2. History (Middle Ages) Research". Encyclopedia of Shinto. Kokugakuin University. Retrieved 10 December 2010.
• Satō, Makoto (2006/ 12/ 9). "Shinto and Buddhism — Development of Shinbutsu Shūgō (Combinatory Religion of Kami and Buddhas)—". Retrieved 2008-05-12. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
• Scheid, Bernhard (2008-04-16). "Honji suijaku: Die Angleichung von Buddhas und Kami" (in German). University of Vienna. Retrieved 2008-11-04.
• Scheid, Bernhard. "Shinto im Mittelalter" (in German). University of Vienna. Retrieved 2010-12-10.
• Sueki, Fumihiko (2007). Chūsei no kami to hotoke (in Japanese). Tokyo: Yamakawa Shuppansha. ISBN 978-4-634-54320-1.
• Tamura, Yoshiro (2000). "The Birth of the Japanese nation". Japanese Buddhism - A Cultural History (First ed.). Tokyo: Kosei Publishing Company. p. 232 pages. ISBN 4-333-01684-3.
• Smyers, Karen Ann (1999). The Fox and the Jewel: Shared and Private Meanings in Contemporary Japanese Inari Worship. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-2102-5.
• Dismantling stereotypes surrounding Japan's sacred entities by Fabio Rambelli, Japan Times, July 15, 2001 excerpted from Monumenta Nipponica, 56:2
• Mark Teeuwen and Fabio Rambelli (Editors) (Dec. 27, 2002). Buddhas and Kami in Japan: Honji Suijaku as a Combinatory Paradigm. London: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 978-0415297479. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)