User:Allendq/Red Lanterns (Boxer Uprising)

Article Outline

Lead

Introduction

• Add more specifics about the Red Lanterns beyond performing tasks “which the male Boxers could not” from the current article

Article body

Background

• Add additional information on the Boxer rebellion to provide greater context
• "These young women neither arranged their hair in the traditional manner nor bound their feet. They wore red coats and trousers, red hats, and red shoes. All red from top to bottom, they tied up their sleeves to make it easier to work, and each carried a red lantern" Chinese Women in a Century of Revolution Ono p. 49

Activities in 1900

• Additional information on Red Lantern accounts
  • Training process
    • "...training in wielding swords and waving fans was extraordinarily rigorous. Their round red fans were shaped like an evergreen shrub, and they believed that when they waved these fans they could leap up to heaven." p.49 Ono Chinese Women in a Century of Revolution
    • "Then every ten days, or perhaps every seven or eight days, they would form bands and cricle through the villages, running and waving their swords as a kind of demostrative warning. They called this 'walking the city' (caicheng)..." p. 50 Ono Chinese Women in a Century of Revolution
  • Women and China’s Revolutions, Gail Hershatter “From up in the air, it was said, they would throw swords to behead the enemy, send forth bolts of fire, and magically remove the screws from the enemy’s artillery” p. 52  
  • “Apart from maintaining public order and apprehending spies, the Red Lanterns are alleged to have performed such tasks as gathering military intelligence, transmitting news, giving first aid to the wounded, hauling provisions, and boiling water and preparing meals. Also, when situations demanded, they took up weapons and joined in the fighting” The Contested Past: The Boxers as History and Myth, Paul Cohen 102
  • "Its members worked tirelessly, looking after injured Boxers, serving as lookouts, and gathering intelligence on the enemy" p. 49 Ono Chinese Women in a Century of Revolution
• Notable characteristics: did not bind their feet (Hershatter)
• Relationship to nationalism with believed ability to reclaim the lands Japan took from China (Hershatter)
  • "It was said that having flown to heaven, the Red Lanterns would cross the Yellow Sea to Japan to take back their country's stolen land." p. 50 Ono Chinese Women in a Century of Revolution

Important Figures/Leaders

• "Their leaders were called by names parallel to those of the Boxers: 'Senior Sister-Disciple' (da shijie) and 'Second Sister-Disciple' (er shijie)" Ono p. 49 Chinese Women in a Century of Revolution
• Section on Lin Hei’er (The Contested Past: The Boxers as History and Myth, Cohen), aka Huang-lien Sheng-mu (The Nature and Characteristics of the Boxer Movement--A Morphological Study Jerome Ch’en), a leader of the Red Lanterns
  • Biographical information
  • Contribution to the Red Lanterns and stories about them
• Huanglian Shengmu (Holy Mother of the Yellow Lotus) - information from Chinese Women in a Century of Revolution by Ono Kazuko (Original name was Lin Heier)
  • Married to Li You, who thrown in jail in 1900 after a dispute with a foreigner, which caused Huanglian Shengmu to "nurse a deep hatred of the foreign invaders" p. 51 (paraphrased)
  • With Boxer leader Zhang Decheng, she entered the city of Tianjin, established an altar on a slat boat along the Grand Canal, and there organized young women. From the mast of the ship a flag saying Holy Mother of Yellow Lotus. Cured the sick on the boat p. 51-52 (paraphrased)
  • Devoted herself to caring for injured Boxer soldiers. Maintained contact with Boxer leaders and worked over battle plans with them p. 52
  • Led the Red Lanterns into battle at the Laolongtou Station and at Zizhulin p. 52
  • Captured and executed after Tianjin fell. Calm at her death inspired respect among onlookers. Foreign soldiers feared the red lanterns from the boats along the Grand Canal, would immediately flee upon seeing them. p. 52 (paraphrased)

In legend and history

• Expanded subsection on Red Lanterns and the Cultural Revolution
  • “The Red Guards [...] were determined to carry on and develop the revolutionary spirit of the Red Lanterns and, under the leadership of Chairman Mao and his thought, repulse the enemy’s every attack” (The Contested Past: The Boxers as History and Myth, Cohen p. 99-100)
• Additional information on Red Lantern resurgence from 1974-1976 (The Contested Past: The Boxers as History and Myth, Cohen)
  • “When the Red Lantern symbol was resurrected in 1974-1976, its main focus was not on youth and redness, as in the earlier period, but on the issue of female emancipation in a patriarchal society” 101
  • “The heroines of the Red Lantern, no longer willing to tolerate this terrible situation, fearlessly attacked ‘the traitorous teachings of Confucius and Mencius,’ broke through the constraints of the Confucian ethical code, and ‘inscribed a glorious page in the history of the revolutionary struggle of the women of our nation’” 101

Article Draft- Revising and Additions

Introduction

The Red Lanterns (simplified Chinese: 红灯照; traditional Chinese: 紅燈照; pinyin: Hóng Dēng Zhào) were a women's fighting group organized during the Boxer Uprising of 1900. Villagers said these women had supernatural powers which helped to protect the male Boxers and fight against foreign enemies.

Background

Unlike the Taiping rebels but like many Chinese folk sects such as the White Lotus Sect, Boxer ideology forbade contact with women. Boxer discipline in its strictest form did not allow sexual contact with or even looking at a woman for fear that the female's polluting yin would destroy the invulnerability ritual. Women organized parallel units to the Boxers: The Red Lanterns (Hongdeng zhao, i.e. "Red Lanterns Shining"), for younger women, "Blue Lanterns" (Landeng zhao) for middle-aged women, and Black Lanterns (Heideng zhao) for elderly women.

It is likely that the Red Lanterns had little day-to-day contact with the Boxers (Cohen 3 Keys 39). Due to the negative associations with childbirth, adult Chinese women were seen as polluted or ritually unclean. Red Lanterns were anywhere from eleven to seventeen years old (Cohen 3 keys 141). Their young age, combined with limited access to a reliable food source, meant that most Red Lanterns were likely premenstrual, or presumed to be by the community (Cohen 3 keys 143). Their special powers were deemed to be a result of this pure prepubescent and pre-childbirth state (Cohen 3 keys 144). Another argument speculates that their power was greater than the Boxers because “...women, though polluted (or perhaps, because polluted), possessed extraordinary powers” (Esherick Origins of Boxer Uprising 298). Nevertheless, because they were young women, their powers were generally seen as less fallible than the Boxers’ (Ch’en 303).

Regardless of the reasons for their powers, these girls and young women were able to live outside of traditional Confucision expectations (Esherick 298). For example, the Red Lanterns did not set their hair in the traditional way and did not bind their feet. They wore red coats and trousers, red hats, and red shoes, and each carried a red lantern (Ono p. 49).

Activities in 1900

The Red Lanterns were trained for anywhere between 48 days to five months in order to cultivate their powers (Ch’en 303). The new Red Lanterns would practice walking on water through chanting incantations. With enough practice on the pond, they would be able to take flight (Ch’en 303). In addition, they were trained in sword fighting and fan waving (Ono 49).

They were said to be able to leap up to heaven when they waved their red fans. They are mentioned in second or third hand accounts as being able to walk on water, fly, set fire to Christians' homes, and stop their guns, powers which the male Boxers themselves did not claim. Other accounts claim that the Red Lanterns could control the strength and direction of the wind as they flew (Cohen 3 Keys 127).

A folk song had it:

Wearing all red,

Carrying a small red lantern,

Woosh, with a wave of the fan

Up they fly to heaven.

Reliable accounts of Red Lantern activities are hard to find. Similar to the Boxers, reports of their magic come from second or third-hand accounts (Ch’en 302). The only good accounts of their actual activities come from the Battle of Tientsin, when they nursed wounded Boxers and did work such as sewing and cleaning.

These young women also had the power to protect the Boxers who were fighting the invaders. One former Boxer recalled in an oral history in the 1950s that “a brother-disciple,” that is, a fellow Boxer, “would hold a piece of rope in his hand.... and direct the fighting. The Boxers would fight down below, while the Red Lanterns would watch from above, appearing suspended in the sky, no larger than a chicken’s egg.” These Red Lanterns could throw swords through the air and lop off the heads of the invaders, as well as remove the screws from their cannons. When the Red Lanterns stood still, they could send their souls into battle. They had the ability to freeze foreign guns in action.

The Red Lanterns are known for using their powers to intensify or ignite fires. During fighting in the Tianji dust storm on June 18, 1900, the Red Lanterns were said to have made the fires which burned through the city more powerful. Through perching on the city walls and waving their fans, they strengthened the flames (Cohen 3K 128). They flew to foreign lands to set fire to enemy buildings and homes (Cohen 3K 128). Their red kerchiefs turned into red lanterns which could burst into flames when thrown from flight (Cohen 3K 128).

Taking on a nationalist role, it was believed that the Red Lanterns could reclaim lands taken from China by Japan (Hershatter). Using their powers of flight, the Red Lanterns would cross over the Yellow Sea and into Japan to reclaim these lands (Ono 50)

The Red Lanterns were also famous for their healing powers. In the 1950s, a former Red Lantern told another oral history project of the senior “sister disciple” who could go into a trance, clap her hands in the direction of a sick person, and cure the illness. Another Red Lantern, the Holy Mother of the Yellow Lotus, had the reputation of being able to heal wounds by sprinkling clear water on them and even bringing the dead back to life by rubbing their bodies.

When Boxer magic failed, women frequently took the blame. For instance, when Beijing's Church of the Saviour withstood weeks of attack by explosives and fire, the Boxers blamed this failure on the Catholic women inside, who were said to expose themselves and wave "dirty things," causing the spirits of the Boxers to leave their bodies. The answer was to await the arrival of the Red Lanterns: "The Red Lanterns are all girls and young women, so they do not fear dirty things."

In the years following the defeat of the Boxers, villagers traded stories concerning their exploits. One told of Red Lantern women appearing at buildings in Tianjin which the Qing armies could not capture from the foreigners. They caught the bullets from the foreign guns in their flower baskets and scattered them to set the buildings afire, forcing the French and Japanese soldiers to flee. Other village stories spread an egalitarian message of sharing wealth equally and opposing the monarchy. One was that after they attacked the Foreign Legations, the Red Lanterns spread the slogan of killing "a dragon, a tiger, and three hundred rams." The dragon was the emperor, the tiger was Prince Qing, and the three hundred rams were the officials of the central government.

Beyond their supernatural powers, the Red Lanterns also provided operations assistance. It is alleged that they apprehended spies, were lookouts, transmitted news, and gathered intelligence on the enemy (Cohen contested past 102, Ono p. 49). During battles, they would take care of the wounded, help prepare meals, boil water, and carry provisions (Cohen contested past 102).

Notable Leaders and Members

Leaders of the Red Lanterns were called by similar titles to the Boxers, namely “‘Senior Sister-Disciple’ (da shijie) and ‘Second Sister-Disciple’ (er shijie)’” (Ono p. 49).

Lin Hei’er, more commonly known as Huanglien Shengmu (Holy Mother of the Yellow Lotus), is the most well known leader of the Red Lanterns. Lin Hei’er became involved in anti-foreign activities after her husband, Li You, was jailed in 1900 and later died following a conflict with a foreigner (Ono 51). She traveled to Tianjin with Boxer leader Zhang Decheng where she began assembling women to form the Red Lanterns. On a slat boat along the Grand Canal, she flew a flag saying Holy Mother of the Yellow Lotus. Here, she created an altar, attracted women to join the Red Lanterns, and cured the sick (Ono 51-52).

Huanglien Shengmu was involved in many aspects of the Boxer Rebellion, including healing the sick and wounded, crafting battle plans, and leading the Red Lanterns in battle (Ono 52). Her powers were greater than other Red Lanterns and included the ability to undo screws on foreign cannons (Ch’en 303). She also possessed the unique ability to heal the wounded by sprinkling clear water on them and could restore life to the dead by rubbing their bodies (Cohen 3 Keys 126). It is alleged that she led the Red Lanterns into battle at Laolongtou Station and Zizhuling (Ono 52). Notably, these battles are rare instances of women allegedly fighting alongside men (Cohen 3 Keys 273).

Huanglien Shengmu garnered respect for the Red Lanterns after a confrontation with Zhili Governor-General Yulu (Cohen 3 Keys 271). Yulu was resistant to Boxer intervention against foreigners. After resisting Boxer efforts even when fighting had already begun in Tianjin, Huanglien Shengmu confronted him. She argued for his support and berated him for his opposition to the Boxers. In a triumphant success, he conceded and promised his future support to the Rebellion (Cohen 3 Keys 271). Historian Paul Cohen notes that Huanglien Shengmu’s confrontation is significant because she was both a working-class person talking up to a ruling-class person, and also a female in a highly patriarchal society talking down to a male- with unusual success (Cohen 3 Keys 273).

In a battle in Tianjin in July 1900, Huanglien Shengmu was captured and executed. She was reported to die a calm and stoic death, which inspired witnesses to her execution (Ono 52). Her legacy prevailed, as foreign enemies would flee when red lanterns were put up on the boats along the Grand Canal in fear of her power (Ono 52).

Another such legend concerned Azure Cloud, a young village woman who was said to be able to jump ten feet in the air as an expert in martial arts. She developed a deep hatred of foreigners. The legend had it that when the International Expedition entered Beijing, she killed many of the invaders. When Boxer leaders turned into collaborators and committed unspeakable crimes, Azure Cloud invited these traitors for a banquet. She denounced them: "I would never have believed you could be such beasts. It is your fault that the country is on the verge of collapse." She then executed them and disappeared without a trace. A village song bragged:

The red lantern shines,

Lighting the path for the people.

In legend and history

In the late Qing period, the Boxers and Red Lanterns were remembered unfavorably by some of the educated Chinese elite for their religious and magical claims. Yet at the same time, the general public largely supported the groups (Cohen Humanizing 179).

Academic histories in China mentioned the Red Lanterns only in passing, even after 1949, when the Boxer movement was considered a patriotic uprising of the masses. In 1967, the Red Lanterns surged as a trending topic in the Chinese national media. The Cultural Revolution was at its most radical phase, and the radical student youth groups, the Red Guards, reached the heights of their fervor. Parallels between the Red Lanterns and the Red Guards heightened their popularity in the media. Their ability to repel foreign attacks meshed well with Chairman Mao’s revolutionary agenda (Cohen 99-100 contested past). Coincidences like their three-syllable names, use of the color red, the fact that each group largely comprised young and rebellious individuals heightened the similarities (Cohen 3 key 264). One Red Guard group even chose the name “Red Lantern Fighting Force.”

The Model Revolutionary Opera, The Legend of the Red Lantern, produced by Mao Zedong’s wife, Jiang Qing, had no connection to the Boxer movement, but popularized the Red Lantern into a revolutionary symbol. A campaign in official Party newspapers saw a direct connection with the Red Lanterns of 1900. Official editorials attacked Liu Shaoqi, Mao’s former second in command, for detesting the Boxers, and called upon the Red Guards to carry on the spirit of the Red Lanterns.

From 1974-1976 the Red Lanterns experienced a resurgence in an anti-Confucian campaign (Cohen 3k 270). The campaign attempted to eradicate the subordination of women, aversion to physical labor, and other issues associated with Confucianism (Cohen 3 Keys 270). For stepping outside the boundaries of Confucian gender roles, the Red Lanterns became symbols of revolt against Confucian ethical standards (Cohen 3K 270). The Red Lanterns were also used as a symbol of female emancipation (Cohen contested past 101). Contemporaries looked to their defiance of Confucian moral codes as evidence of women fighting for liberation from traditional Chinese gender roles in history (Cohen contested past 101). In particular, the movement idolized Huanglien Shengmu as a symbol of patriotism and women’s emancipation (Cohen 3 Keys 271).  

The Red Lanterns appear as antagonists in the Hong Kong martial arts film Once Upon a Time in China IV (1993).

Image

The Siege of Beicang Cathedral

References

Ch’ên, Jerome. “The Nature and Characteristics of the Boxer Movement- A Morphological Study.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 23, no. 2 (1960): 287–308.

Cohen, Paul A. History in Three Keys: The Boxers as Event, Experience, and Myth. ACLS Fellows’ Publications. New York: Columbia University Press, 1997.

———. “Humanizing the Boxers.” In The Boxers, China, and the World, edited by Robert Bickers and R. G. Tiedemann. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2007.

———. “The Contested Past: The Boxers as History and Myth.” The Journal of Asian Studies 51, no. 1 (1992): 82–113. https://doi.org/10.2307/2058348.

Esherick, Joseph. The Origins of the Boxer Uprising. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, n.d.

Hershatter, Gail. Women and China’s Revolutions. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield, 2019.

Ono, Kazuko. Chinese Women in a Century of Revolution, 1850-1950. Stanford, California: Standford University Press, 1989.