User:Aditya Kabir/sandbox

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Script[edit]

Bengali–Assamese script

  • From Linguistic to Sociolinguistic Reconstruction: The Kamta Historical Subgroup of Indo-Aryan: Matthew Toulmin
  • A Controlled Historical Reconstruction of Oriya, Assamese, Bengali, and Hindi: Debi Prasanna Pattanayak
  • The Origin and Development of the Bengali Language: Suniti Kumar Chatterji

History[edit]

Assamese alphabets were in use even before the Bengali script but there was no separate slot for the Assamese script in the Unicode Standard. Now the chart would cover both the scripts.[1]

The script originally used is known as Brahmi script. In the course of time, this script, converted itself first into Kushan script and then into Gupta script. That is to say, with the progress of the art to writing, the letters changed their shapes gradually in order to effect speed, legibility and beauty. Later Gupta script gave birth to Kashmiri and Gurmukhi, Devanagri, Gujarati, and Kutila. From Kutila the present Assamese script evolved.[2]

The script owes its origin to Brahmi and may be called a descendant of the "Kutila" variety of the Gupta script of Eastern India. Evidence from the early inscriptions on copper plates and grants showes that Assamese characters vere taking shape along with Brahmi in Devanagari characters and by the 12th Century these characters appear to have achieved the shapes of the modern script. This is supported by the Kanai Varasi rock inscription at north Gauhati dated Saka 11227 (1185 A.D.).[3]

Merging of four scripts[edit]

But in the absence of standard printing types, the scripts used to be varied.[4]

Between the seventeenth and the nineteenth centuries, four styles of Assamese writing developed in the Brahmaputra Valley: Gargaya (particularly practiced in eastern Assam for writing burunjis), Bamunia (for religious texts), Lakhari, and Kaithali (practiced in western Assam).[5]

This early Assamese (more appropriately Kamrupi) script had four variations, namely: 1) Gadgāya: possibly because it had as its centre of cultivation the Ahom capital Gadgāo 2) Bamunia: used in preperation of Sanskrit texts 3) Kaitheli: used by the Kayastha caste for their own method of writing and 4) another variation of the same called Lakhari.[3]

Originally there were several schools of Assamese script, namely Gargaya, Bamunia, Lakhari and Kaithili; but later all the scripts merged into one. After the establishment of the printing - press at Serampore , near Calcutta, Assamese books began to be printed in the Bengali script, and since then the Bengali script has been adopted for Assamese with certain modifications.[6]

All of these scripts merged into one when the printing press was developed in the nineteenth century and the American Baptist Mission created standardized Assamese letters.[5]

In the course of time these variations vere merged into ome common script, which is currently in vogue snd the estabishwent of vhich was confirmed through its use in the printing press.[3]

Gaudi script[edit]

Alberuni writes about eleven scripts prevalent in the 11th century CE. These were all regional scripts. Among these he writes about the Gauri (Gaudī) scripts used in Pūrvadeśa, i.e., eastern country. Today we are not in a position to identify at least three scripts mentioned by him, viz., current in Bhatia and Sindh regions.[7]

The Gaudi script which was prevalent in the eastern countries like Bengal, Orissa and Assam. The scripts of Bengal and Assam developed side by side and both have almost identical scripts.[7]

During the 10-14 centuries CE the Gaudi or proto-Bengal script which is derived from Siddhamatrika was prevalent in eastern India including Bihar. The Gaudi script was replaced by Nagari subsequently. Nagari is derived from Nagar, an urban settlement where the script was used first, and which could be Pataliputra. The word Devanagari has been in use for about 200 to 300 years for Sanskrit and other languages. The scripts now commonly used in Bihar are Devanagari, Olchiki and Perso- Arabic.[8]

Earlier, Gaudi script derived from Siddhamatrika prevailed from the tenth to the fourteenth century. An admixture of scripts called Kalinga or later Kalinga script existed in the Eastern Ganga dynasty during the period from the seventh to eleventh century.[9]

The Rañjä or Rañjanā alphabet used by the Buddhists of Tibet and Nepal was a derivative of Siddhamātņkā [...] The Rañjanā or Rañjā ( Lan - ja in Tibetan ) script is a somewhat ornamental alphabet developed out of Siddhamātskā and its characters exhibit the influence of both Nāgari and Gaudi .[10]

This stone slab was engraved by a goldsmith in Gaudi script . The Biharsharif stone slab inscription of 1496 A.D. in Bengali - Maithili scripts (period of Sultān Sikandar Shāh of Lodi dynasty of Delhi) records erection of a temple on the bank of Ganges.[11]

The Gaudí has been regarded as the same script to which is given the appellative "proto-Bengali". In that case it must be conceded that the proto-Bengali script had evolved by the beginning of the eleventh century CE.[12]

An inscription of Vikrama Samyat 1553 (= Rudhirodgārin according to Jupiter's North Indian Cycle, i.e. 1496 CE), shows how the Gaudi script was used in preference to Nāgari, in the area about the coast of the Gangā nearest to Biharsharif. In this connection, it is necessary to remember that Gauda, originally the chief city of the Gauda country, is the present Gaur lying in the southern part of the Malda District to the north of the Gangā; but, in the early medieval period, the course of the Gangā passed by the north and east of the city. From a city and a small territory around it , the name came to cover a big kingdom , soon indicating Eastern India in a general way as we have said.[13]

This inscription (Gopalpur Plates of Mahabhavagupta I Janmejaya, Year 10), like the previous and other records of the king and the dynasty, is inscribed in what is commonly called "northern class of alphabets" or, correctly, Gaudi script common to the Orissan epigraphs showing an admixture of Gaudī and Nāgarī alphabets. The characters resemble especially those of the earlier records of Mahābhavagupta Janamējaya.[14]

In the North-east of India the present scripts (Bengali, Assamese, Maithili and Oriya) may all be referred to developments of the protoBengali (lately termed Gaudi or Gaudiya).[15]

Printing 1[edit]

Though there were early attempts to cut Bengali types[16] it was the East India Company's interest in propagating the Bengali language[17] that ultimately prevailed. It first commissioned Willem Bolt, a Dutch adventurer, to create a grammar for Bengali, but he had to leave India after he ran into trouble with the Company.[18] The first significant book with Bengali typography was Halhed's "A Grammar of the Bengal Language"[19] Halhed compiled his grammar from a meagre set of six Bengali manuscripts.[20] When Halhed turned to Warren Hastings for publishing, he was referred to Charles Wilkins, the type-founder at the Company press at Hoogly. Learned in Sanskrit and Persian, Wilkins singlehandedly cut the most complete set. He was assisted by the Bengali blacksmith, Panchanan Karmakar, who is often erroneously credited as the father of the Bengali type.[21]

Printing 2[edit]

The types used in the Bible, cannot be said similar to the Assamese alphabets, rather, very likely these were also prepared by Panchanan Karmakar, The types used in the second edition of the Bible in 1883 bear closer resemblance to the alphabets used in the Assamese script.[22]

The first Assamese book was printed in this press by Rev. Carey . Therefore , there is a relation of the history of the Assamese printed books with this press . [...] The Types used in the Bible, cannot be said similar to the Assamese alphabets, rather, very likely these were also prepared by Panchanan Karmakar, The types used in the second edition of the Bible in 1883 bear closer resemblance to the alphabets used in the Assamese script.[22]

Atmaram Sharma an Assamese scholar was invited by the Baptist Missionaries to develop Assamese script for printing machine. Henceforth Atmaram Shamra created the first modem Assamese script which was adapted to use in printing machines to publish religious articles.[23]

Since both Assamese and Bengali scripts are similar in structure except few typographical differences and Bengali script progressed long before Assamese under the influence of British rule, a clear inclination has been observed in Assamese script towards Bengali during commercial developments of the script from early printing period to current time. There may be differences in styles of writing between Bengali and Assamese script if history would be revisited thoroughly, but during machine reproduction both the scripts were given similar structure for universal use except few typographical differences. This was duc to the fact that, at that time printing presses were located in Bengal.[23]

The first printed Assamese book is called Dharmapustak; it is a Christian Bible in translation that was printed at the mission press in Sreerampur, Bengal, in 1835.[5]

Even in today’s scenario almost all the typefaces available in digital format for Assamese script have their roots from typefaces originally created for Bengali script. This may be due to easy adaptability of existing Bengali typefaces or fonts for Assamese script.[23]

By this time , the coming of the printing machine to India began to make its impact felt in the realm of Assamese script. And, the first Assamese printed book, under the title Natun Niyam, being an Assamese version of the New Testament, came out of the Serampore Press in 1813. By all accounts, it was printed in blocks of letters meant for the Bengali script.[24]

However based on historical evidences, the area of type design and development specifically for Assamese script still has many scopes to explore. But to achieve that, it is essential to study and analyze the original Assamese script or letterforms used in the region of Assam in preprinting press era. Many of the historical articles are still available in museums such as copper plate inscriptions, tock inscriptions, Xaansi tree bark manuscripts and coins.[23]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Cite error: The named reference BSP was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  2. ^ Hamlet Bareh, Encyclopaedia of North-East India: Assam, page 130, Mittal Publications, 2001, ISBN 9788170997894
  3. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference Mahap was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  4. ^ Amiya Kumar Das, Assam's Agony: A Socio-economic and Political Analysis, page 19, Lancers Publishers, 1982
  5. ^ a b c Yasmin Saikia, Assam and India: Fragmented Memories, Cultural Identity, and the Tai-Ahom Struggle, page 6, Orient Blackswan, 2005, ISBN 9788178241234
  6. ^ Birinchi Kumar Barua, Assamese Literature, page 6, International Book House Limited, 1941
  7. ^ a b Thakur Prasad Verma, Development of Script in Ancient Kamrupa, page 22, Asam Sahitya Sabha, 1976
  8. ^ Nava Kishor Das, People of India (Volume 16, Part 2), page XXIV, Anthropological Survey of India, 2008, ISBN 9788170463030
  9. ^ Kumar Suresh Singh, Odisha (Part 2), page 854, Anthropological Survey of India, 2012, ISBN 9788170462941
  10. ^ Alaka Chattopadhyaya, Atīśa and Tibet: Life and Works of Dīpaṃkara Śrījñāna in Relation to the History and Religion of Tibet, page 201, Motilal Banarsidass Publications, 1981, ISBN 9788120809284
  11. ^ Bhāskaranātha Miśra, Nālandā (Volume 1), page 28, B.R. Publishing, 1998, ISBN 9788176460170
  12. ^ D.C. Sircar, Journal of Ancient Indian History (Volume 19), page 100, Department of Ancient Indian History and Culture, 1994
  13. ^ Dineschandra Sircar, Aspects of the Cultural History of Ancient Bihar, page 27, Kashi Prasad Jayaswal Research Institute, 1983
  14. ^ D. R. Bhandarkar, "Three Copper-Plate Charters of Mahabhavagupta", Epigraphia Indica (Volume 43, Part 1), page 113, Archæological Survey of India, 2011
  15. ^ R. F. Hosking and Glyn Munro Meredith-Owens, A Handbook of Asian Scripts, page 29, Department of Oriental Printed Books and Manuscripts, British Museum, 1966
  16. ^ (Khan 1962:55)
  17. ^ "By 1772, the Company had skillfully employed the sword, diplomacy, and intrigue to take over the rule of Bengal from her people, factious nobles, and weak Nawab. Subsequently, to consolidate its hold on the province, the Company promoted the Bengali language. This did not represent an intrinsic love for Bengali speech and literature. Instead it was aimed at destroying traditional patterns of authority through supplanting the Persian language which had been the official tongue since the days of the great Moguls." (Khan 1962:53)
  18. ^ "[T]he East India Company had commissioned Bolts to prepare a grammar of the Bengali language. But although Bolts, who was a man of great enterprise and ingenuity, had represented himself as a great Orientalist, he ran into difficulties with the Company from 1766 to 1768 which culminated in his deportation from India." (Khan 1962:55–56)
  19. ^ " The first significant stride in Bengali typography, printing, and publication was made in 1778 with the appearance of A Grammar of the Bengal Language by Halhed." (Khan 1962:56)
  20. ^ "Halhed, when compiling his monumental Grammar of the Bengali Language, complained that despite his familiarity with the works of Bengali authors he could trace only six extant books in 1778. These included the great religious epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. All six, of course, were in manuscript." (Khan 1962:53)
  21. ^ (Khan 1962:57–58)
  22. ^ a b Nagena Śaikīẏā, Background of Modern Assamese Literature, page 141, Omsons Publications, 1988, ISBN 9788171170487
  23. ^ a b c d Amaresh Chakrabarti, Research into Design for a Connected World: Proceedings of ICoRD 2019 (Volume 1), page 144, Springer, 2019, ISBN 9789811359743
  24. ^ Mahendra Bara, The Evolution of Assamese Script page 70, Asam Sahitya Sabha, 1981
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