Big Raven Formation

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Coordinates: 57°38′N 130°40′W / 57.64°N 130.67°W / 57.64; -130.67
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Big Raven Formation
Stratigraphic range: Holocene
0.0118–0 Ma
↓
A dark-coloured volcanic cone with a summit crater rising above a sparsely snow-covered rocky plateau.
Nahta Cone of the Big Raven Formation
TypeGeological formation[1]
Unit ofMount Edziza volcanic complex[2]
Sub-unitsSheep Track Member[1]
OverliesNido Formation, Spectrum Formation, Raspberry Formation, Armadillo Formation, Klastline Formation, Ice Peak Formation, Edziza Formation[3][4]
Lithology
PrimaryAlkali basalt, hawaiite[1]
OtherTrachyte[1]
Location
CoordinatesBig Raven Plateau[5]
57°42′59″N 130°45′06″W / 57.71639°N 130.75167°W / 57.71639; -130.75167[6]

Arctic Lake Plateau[5]
57°17′59″N 130°46′06″W / 57.29972°N 130.76833°W / 57.29972; -130.76833[7]

Kitsu Plateau[8]
57°27′59″N 130°45′06″W / 57.46639°N 130.75167°W / 57.46639; -130.75167[9]
RegionBritish Columbia[10]
CountryCanada[10]
Type section
Named bySouther et al., 1984[11]
Map
Location in Mount Edziza Provincial Park

The Big Raven Formation is a stratigraphic unit of Holocene age in northwestern British Columbia, Canada. It is the youngest and least voluminous geological formation of the Mount Edziza volcanic complex (MEVC); it overlies at least six older formations of this volcanic complex. The main volcanic rocks of the Big Raven Formation are alkali basalts and hawaiites, although a small volume of trachyte comprises the Sheep Track Member. These rocks were deposited by volcanic eruptions in the last 12,000 years during the latest magmatic cycle of the MEVC. Alkali basalt and hawaiite are in the form of lava flows and small volcanic cones while trachyte of the Sheep Track Member is mainly in the form of volcanic ejecta which covers an area of about 40 square kilometres (15 square miles).

The Big Raven Formation is widespread throughout the MEVC, occurring on or adjacent to the Arctic Lake, Big Raven and Kitsu plateaus. Two lava fields of the Big Raven Formation occur on the Big Raven Plateau which in total contain at least 22 separate vents that issued lava flows. At least four isolated Big Raven vents occur on the eastern flank of Mount Edziza and on the extreme northern slope of the Big Raven Plateau. The Kitsu Plateau contains a much smaller Big Raven lava field near the edge of an escarpment; at least three separate vents are in this lava field. Two isolated Big Raven vents on and adjacent to the Arctic Lake Plateau produced lava flows, as did two isolated Big Raven vents in Walkout Creek valley. Most Big Raven vents are marked by a cone of pyroclastic rocks.

Stratigraphy[edit]

Stratigraphically, the Big Raven Formation is the youngest unit of the late Cenozoic Mount Edziza volcanic complex in northwestern British Columbia, Canada.[2] It contains one sub-unit called the Sheep Track Member which is lithologically distinct from the rest of the Big Raven Formation.[1] Initially, the Big Raven Formation and the Sheep Track Member were recognized as two separate geological formations by Jack Souther, Richard Lee Armstrong and J. Harakal in 1984; both formations were grouped together in their descriptions and mapping.[11][12][13] By 1988, the Sheep Track Formation had been reassigned as a member of the Big Raven Formation; its recognition as a geological formation has since been abandoned.[13] The Big Raven Formation is the least voluminous geological formation of the MEVC, consisting of 1.7 cubic kilometres (0.41 cubic miles) of volcanic material.[2]

The Big Raven Formation overlies the Klastline, Edziza, Ice Peak, Spectrum, Nido, Armadillo and Raspberry formations, all of which are older units of the MEVC.[14] It is separated from the Klastline Formation by a layer of moraine that was deposited by retreating glaciers at the end of the last glacial period.[15] The Big Raven Formation overlies the Ice Peak Formation north and south of Mount Edziza.[3] An outlier of the Big Raven Formation is separated from the Spectrum Formation by a thick layer of unconsolidated felsenmeer and talus.[16] Another outlier of the Big Raven Formation overlies the Nido Formation east of Mount Edziza.[3] Big Raven breccia on the plateau surface east of Mess Lake directly overlies trachyte of the Armadillo Formation.[5]

Age and lithology[edit]

The Big Raven Formation is of Holocene age and was deposited during the latest magmatic cycle of the MEVC.[10][17] Its age has not been wholly determined from geologic dating but rather from the lack of evidence suggesting that it was overridden by the Cordilleran Ice Sheet which retreated from the area about 11,000 years ago.[18] Therefore, the Big Raven Formation is considered to postdate the latest episode of regional glaciation and may be up to around 11,000 years old.[1][18] Tephrochronological, radiocarbon and fission track dating has yielded ages of 6520 BCE ± 200 years, 750 BCE ± 100 years, 610 CE ± 150 years and 950 CE ± 6000 years for some Big Raven volcanic rocks at Mount Edziza.[10][19]

Alkali basalt and hawaiite are the main volcanic rocks comprising the Big Raven Formation, having erupted from at least 30 vents along the entire north–south trending axis of the MEVC.[20] They are in the form of lava flows and pyroclastic cones which largely comprise two lava fields on the northern and western flanks of Mount Edziza and Ice Peak, respectively.[21] Isolated pyroclastic cones and lava flows occur at the northern and southern extremities of the Big Raven Formation, as well as on the eastern flank of Mount Edziza and along Walkout Creek.[22] Trachyte represents a small volume of the Big Raven Formation and mainly comprises air-fall pumice of the Sheep Track Member.[1]

Locations[edit]

An overhead view of an oval-shaped, snow-covered plateau with a snow-covered mountain in the middle.
The Big Raven Plateau contains the largest extent of Big Raven Formation lava flows and cones

The Big Raven Formation is widespread throughout the MEVC, occurring on or adjacent to the Kitsu, Arctic Lake and Big Raven plateaus.[4][23] The Big Raven Plateau is the main physiographic feature at the northern end of the MEVC; its dominant feature is Mount Edziza which rises from the middle of the plateau.[24][25] Further south near the middle of the MEVC is the Kitsu Plateau which is bounded on the north by Raspberry Pass, on the west by the Mess Creek Escarpment and on the south by the Spectrum Range.[24] The Arctic Lake Plateau is a nearly flat upland at the southern end of the MEVC between the Spectrum Range to the east and Mess Creek valley to the west.[26]

Big Raven Plateau[edit]

The Big Raven Plateau contains the Desolation Lava Field on the northern flank of Mount Edziza which consists of several lava flows that issued from at least 10 separate Big Raven vents.[27] Another area of Big Raven lava flows called the Snowshoe Lava Field occurs on the western flank of Ice Peak; it issued from at least 12 separate vents.[28] The Sheep Track Member overlies much of the southern end of the Big Raven Plateau, including the Snowshoe Lava Field.[29] At least three Big Raven vents occur on the eastern flank of Mount Edziza and comprise another volcanic zone called the east slope centres.[22] An isolated Big Raven vent called Kana Cone occurs on the extreme northern slope of the plateau while two cinder cones occur on the southern slope of the plateau in Walkout Creek valley.[4][30]

Desolation Lava Field[edit]

Blocky basalt flows, wind-sculptured ash beds and cinder cones comprise the more than 150-square-kilometre (58-square-mile) Desolation Lava Field.[1] This is the largest lava field of the Big Raven Formation, as well as one of the youngest volcanic features on Mount Edziza.[31] Sleet Cone and Storm Cone, the oldest cones in the Desolation Lava Field, were sources of lava flows that directly travelled over glacial till.[32] The Triplex Cones issued lava that flowed to near the south shore of Buckley Lake more than 12 kilometres (7.5 miles) to the northwest. Sidas Cone and Twin Cone are complex volcanic piles resulting from simultaneous, multi-vent lava fountaining. Both cones issued relatively thin clinkery-surfaced basalt flows that are sparsely porphyritic.[33] Moraine Cone was the source of a lava flow that travelled northeast into Kakiddi Valley near its junction with the Klastline River.[34] The two youngest cinder cones in the Desolation Lava Field, Eve Cone and Williams Cone, produced basaltic lava that flowed to Buckley Lake and the Klastline River, respectively.[35] A radiocarbon date of 610 CE ± 150 years has been obtained from willow twigs preserved in ejecta from Williams Cone.[19][36]

A gently sloping surface rising above vegetated slopes with mountains in the background and foreground.
Panoramic view of the Big Raven Plateau; Eve Cone is visible as a small dark hill to the right

Some of the lava flows comprising the Desolation Lava Field issued from vents adjacent to the northern trim line of Mount Edziza's summit ice cap where meltwater interacted with the erupting lava to form tuff rings. These tuff rings composed of quenched breccia later transitioned into normal subaerial cinder cones as the progressing eruptions displaced ice and meltwater.[27] The more than 12-kilometre-long (7.5-mile) lava flow from Williams Cone formed a temporary dam across the Klastline River at its distal end.[28] Lava from Moraine Cone temporarily dammed Kakiddi Creek and the Klastline River, both of which have since etched new channels around or through the lava flow. The presence of lacustrine silt in small terraces upstream from the lava flow suggests that both streams were dammed long enough to form temporary lakes.[34]

Snowshoe Lava Field[edit]

The Snowshoe Lava Field is a group of volcanic cones and blocky basalt flows similar in age to the Desolation Lava Field. It covers an area of about 40 square kilometres (15 square miles) and is mostly covered over by air-fall pumice of the Sheep Track Member. As a result, the surface details of most of the upper lava flows in this lava field remain obscured and the cones are mantled with Sheep Track pumice.[29] The Snowshoe Lava Field contains three subglacial cones, Tennena Cone being the only one named.[37] Tennena Cone consists of a pile of tuff breccia and pillow basalt and is one of the oldest cones in the Snowshoe Lava Field.[38] A smaller unnamed subglacial cone 1.5 kilometres (0.93 miles) to the south also consists of a pile of pillow basalt and tuff breccia.[39] Further south at the southern terminus of Tencho Glacier is another unnamed pile of tuff breccia and pillow basalt.[40] It may be the remains of a tuff ring that has been glacially modified after having formed in a meltwater lake when Tencho Glacier existed at lower elevations.[41]

A black cone-shaped mountain rising over glacial ice in the foreground.
Tennena Cone from the north

The Snowshoe Lava Field contains five transitional cones,[a] one of which is named.[40] Two unnamed transitional cones are on the southwestern edge of Mount Edziza's summit ice cap inside the alpine trim lines, both of which have been reduced to low, drumlin-like ridges as a result of glacial ice overridding them.[41] The three other transitional cones are unglaciated, having formed at lower elevations just below the terminal alpine moraine.[43] Their inner structures have been exposed by sufficient erosion but they still retain their central craters and original conical form. One of these cones, Coffee Crater, was the source of a lava flow that extended to the southwest; the northern edge of the terminal lobe of this lava flow forms a prominent, 18-metre-high (59-foot) escarpment.[41]

Three subaerial cones exist in the Snowshoe Lava Field, two of which are named. The largest subaerial cone, Cocoa Crater, produced a 2-kilometre-wide (1.2-mile) lava flow that travelled into upper Sezill Creek canyon.[44] Keda Cone[b] and an unnamed subaerial cone to the northeast issued the most voluminous lava in the Snowshoe Lava Field, having flowed westward where it engulfed an area more than 3 kilometres (1.9 miles) wide and 8 kilometres (5.0 miles) long.[47] This lava then continued to flow westward into upper Taweh Valley where it transformed into a relatively narrow flow that formerly extended to near Mess Creek. A subaerial vent referred to as The Saucer produced the youngest lava flow in the Snowshoe Lava Field from near the southern edge of Mount Edziza's summit ice cap. Unlike the other three subaerial centres, The Saucer flow appears to have issued without any accompanying lava fountaining, resulting in no cinder cone development.[48]

Sheep Track Member[edit]

The southwestern flank of Ice Peak and the surrounding Big Raven Plateau are blanketed with loose, air-fall tephra of the Sheep Track Member.[49] It covers an area of about 40 square kilometres (15 square miles) and consists of pumice fragments that range in size from snowball-sized chunks to pea-sized debris.[50] The largest fragments occur along the western margin of Tencho Glacier while the smallest fragments form a circular area at least 10 kilometres (6.2 miles) in diameter.[51] Erosion has largely removed the Sheep Track pumice from drainage channels of small intermittent streams on the upper Big Raven Plateau but deposits as much as 2 metres (6.6 feet) thick occur in interfluvial areas. Although the Sheep Track pumice was deposited on nearly all of the Snowshoe Lava Field flows and cinder cones, The Saucer is covered by only thin drifts of wind-blown pumice and may postdate the Sheep Track eruption.[52] The source of the Sheep Track pumice remains unknown but it probably originated from a vent hidden under Tencho Glacier.[53] Fission track dating of Sheep Track pumice on the southwestern flank of Ice Peak has yielded an age of 950 CE ± 6000 years.[19]

Walkout Creek valley[edit]

Big Raven Formation is located in British Columbia
Big Raven Formation
class=notpageimage|
Location of the Big Raven Formation in British Columbia, Canada

Two small Big Raven cones called the Walkout Creek centres occur on the northern and western sides of Walkout Creek valley, both of which are largely buried and deeply eroded.[4][30] The larger cone on the northern side of the valley is of geological interest because it was constructed on top of an active, slow moving landslide. Although both cones produced lava flows, lava from the larger cone was controlled by the underlying landslide which is characterized by hummocky, ridge and trough topography.[54] As a result, some of this lava was forced to flow into depressions paralleling minor landslide scarps.[5]

East slope centres[edit]

The heavily eroded eastern flank of Mount Edziza contains at least three satellitic centres of the Big Raven Formation. Cinder Cliff consists of thin, slaggy basalt flows that ponded against an ice dam in the upper part of Tenchen Valley. Tuff breccia and ash, as well as glacial and fluvial gravel, form mixed deposits at the base of Clinder Cliff.[55] Icefall Cone on the northeastern spur of Tennaya Cirque and Ridge Cone on the western rim of Idiji Cirque are remnants of two Big Raven eruptive centres that have been greatly modified by mass wasting and alpine glaciation. They both consist of agglutinated spatter, bombs, cinders and slaggy basalt flows; the lava flows are almost completely buried under talus, moraine, fluvial gravel and glacial ice. An intermittently exposed basalt flow extending to near Kakiddi Lake may have issued from Icefall Cone, Ridge Cone or an undiscovered vent inside a narrow, wedge-shaped notch on the eastern flank of Mount Edziza.[29]

Kana Cone[edit]

The northernmost Big Raven vent and the northernmost vent of the entire MEVC is marked by the nested Kana Cone which rises about 60 metres (200 feet) above the surrounding terrain.[56] Its summit contains a roughly 20-metre-deep (66-foot) crater that is breached to the north, exposing oxidated bombs and spatter. Lava from the crater breach extends downslope into Klastline Valley where it temporarily dammed the Klastline River; the river has since etched a new channel along the northern valley wall. The lava continued to flow downstream through Klastline Valley and possibly reached the Stikine River where Big Raven lava flows overlie about 100 metres (330 feet) of sediment at the mouths of the Klastline and Tahltan rivers.[57][58]

Arctic Lake Plateau[edit]

A sparsely snow-covered rocky landscape with a dark volcanic cone in the foreground and a cloud-covered mountain ridge in the background.
Nahta Cone and lava flow

Two isolated occurrences of the Big Raven Formation occur on the Arctic Lake Plateau, Nahta Cone near its northern edge being the southernmost vent of Big Raven age.[59] This cone overlies a glacially-scoured limestone hill and contains a crater that is breached to the east.[60] At least five small conelets comprise Nahta Cone, the largest of which has a topographic relief of approximately 60 metres (200 feet).[5] The breach in the eastern crater rim served as a passageway for at least two highly fluid lava flows that travelled north along a drainage system.[5][61] Extending 700 metres (2,300 feet) north and 500 metres (1,600 feet) west of Nahta Cone are two tephra deposits, suggesting it was active twice during different wind directions.[61]

Northeast of Nahta Cone on the south flank of Kuno Peak in the Spectrum Range are the remains of a Big Raven pyroclastic cone.[62] The remains consist of steeply dipping beds of coarse agglutinated pyroclastic rocks and basaltic lava flows that overlie thick felsenmeer and talus deposits. Much of this cone has been destroyed by repeated landslides and solifluction on Kuno Peak, the former of which also buried lava flows on the Arctic Lake Plateau that originated from this cone.[52]

Kitsu Plateau[edit]

An overhead view of the edge of a cliff-bounded plateau.
False colour image of air-fall tephra from The Ash Pit

The Mess Lake Lava Field is an area of lava flows and tephra deposits between Raspberry Creek in the north, Nagha Creek in the south and Mess Lake in the east.[5][63] It covers an area of about 18 square kilometres (6.9 square miles) and contains three separate vents of Big Raven age. The two oldest vents are marked by slightly eroded pyroclastic cones whose craters and cone-shaped structures are still apparent despite being somewhat rounded. Lava flows from both cones travelled to the west towards the Mess Creek Escarpment where they most likely cascaded into Mess Creek valley. However, any remnants of this lava on the escarpment or in Mess Creek valley have been removed by erosion.[5]

At the southern end of the Mess Lake Lava Field on the steep, south-facing side of Nagha Creek is the third separate vent called The Ash Pit. This 60-metre-deep (200-foot) and 0.4-kilometre-in diameter (0.25-mile) conical depression is the youngest vent of the Mess Lake Lava Field; it may also be the youngest vent of the entire MEVC.[5] The Ash Pit was the source of a 2.5-kilometre-wide (1.6-mile) and 6.5-kilometre-long (4.0-mile) tephra deposit on the Kitsu Plateau that extends to the northeast.[54] It was also the source of a lava flow that travelled down Nagha Creek valley towards the eastern side of Mess Lake, portions of which are buried under stream gravel, outwash and braided channel deposits.[4]

Erosion and vegetation[edit]

Varying degrees of erosion have affected the lava flows and pyroclastic cones of the Big Raven Formation. The oldest lava flows are partially obscured by a thin layer of soil while the oldest pyroclastic cones have been deeply eroded or reduced to mounds of red rubble. Lava flows and pyroclastic cones of intermediate age retain most of their original forms, although fine tephra mantling the pyroclastic cones has eroded away to expose larger bombs and agglutinated spatter. The youngest lava flows have remained virtually unchanged since they cooled, containing rough, blocky surfaces and Pele's hair under slabs of basalt and in protected depressions. Intermittent meltwater streams have cut small meandering channels into the youngest pyroclastic cones, although a few of them are still mantled with fine tephra.[1]

Vegetation varies with both age and elevation of the Big Raven Formation. The older lava flows are covered with forest where they entered valleys and travelled down lower slopes; this forest cover is almost as dense as that on basement rocks of the MEVC. At higher elevations, alpine plants grow on the thin layer of soil that partially obscures the oldest lava flows. Pioneer vegetation occurs only as isolated pockets on lava flows of intermediate age which are more or less overlain with caribou moss and lichen. Sparse patches of lichen cover the otherwise barren surface of the youngest lava flows. At lower elevations, the youngest lava flows are sparsely covered with shrubs and stunted trees.[1]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ Transitional cones are volcanic cones that initially interacted with water during eruption and then later transitioned into normal subaerial volcanic piles as the progressing eruptions displaced ice and meltwater.[42]
  2. ^ Keda Cone is referred to by the numeronym SLF-9 and is erroneously called Kena Cone in the Catalogue of Canadian volcanoes.[45] According to BC Geographical Names, Keda Cone is the proper name.[46]

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Souther 1992, p. 213.
  2. ^ a b c Edwards, Benjamin Ralph (1997). Field, kinetic, and thermodynamic studies of magmatic assimilation in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province, northwestern British Columbia (PhD thesis). University of British Columbia. pp. 3, 10, 11. ISBN 0-612-25005-9.
  3. ^ a b c Souther 1992, p. 246.
  4. ^ a b c d e Souther, J. G. (1988). "1623A" (Geologic map). Geology, Mount Edziza Volcanic Complex, British Columbia. 1:50,000. Geological Survey of Canada. doi:10.4095/133498.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i Souther 1992, p. 235.
  6. ^ "Big Raven Plateau". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2021-09-30. Retrieved 2024-04-03.
  7. ^ "Arctic Lake Plateau". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2021-09-25. Retrieved 2024-04-03.
  8. ^ Souther 1992, p. 234.
  9. ^ "Kitsu Plateau". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2021-10-01. Retrieved 2024-04-03.
  10. ^ a b c d "Edziza: General Information". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on 2021-08-10. Retrieved 2021-09-25.
  11. ^ a b "Big Raven Formation". Lexicon of Canadian Geologic Units. Government of Canada. Retrieved 2023-09-06.
  12. ^ Souther, J. G.; Armstrong, R. L.; Harakal, J. (1984). "Chronology of the peralkaline, late Cenozoic Mount Edziza Volcanic Complex, northern British Columbia, Canada". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 95 (3). Geological Society of America: 339. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1984)95<337:COTPLC>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0016-7606.
  13. ^ a b "Sheep Track Formation". Lexicon of Canadian Geologic Units. Government of Canada. Archived from the original on 2023-12-15. Retrieved 2024-03-06.
  14. ^ Souther 1992, pp. 246, 267.
  15. ^ Souther 1992, p. 216.
  16. ^ Souther 1992, pp. 236, 246.
  17. ^ Souther 1992, p. 267.
  18. ^ a b Wilson, Alexander M.; Kelman, Melanie C. (2021). Assessing the relative threats from Canadian volcanoes (Report). Geological Survey of Canada, Open File 8790. Natural Resources Canada. p. 16. doi:10.4095/328950.
  19. ^ a b c "Edziza: Eruptive History". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on 2023-05-20. Retrieved 2023-06-01.
  20. ^ Souther 1992, pp. 32, 213, 214.
  21. ^ Souther 1992, pp. 27, 213, 214.
  22. ^ a b Souther 1992, pp. 214, 226.
  23. ^ Souther 1992, pp. 32, 214, 234.
  24. ^ a b Souther 1992, p. 32.
  25. ^ "Mount Edziza". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2018-05-15. Retrieved 2024-03-06.
  26. ^ Souther 1992, pp. 22, 32.
  27. ^ a b Souther 1992, p. 26.
  28. ^ a b Souther 1992, p. 27.
  29. ^ a b c Souther 1992, p. 228.
  30. ^ a b Souther 1992, pp. 214, 234.
  31. ^ Souther 1992, pp. 213, 214.
  32. ^ Souther 1992, pp. 216, 218.
  33. ^ Souther 1992, p. 219.
  34. ^ a b Souther 1992, p. 222.
  35. ^ Souther 1992, pp. 217, 219.
  36. ^ Souther 1992, p. 224.
  37. ^ Souther 1992, p. 229.
  38. ^ Souther 1992, pp. 26, 230.
  39. ^ Souther 1992, p. 230.
  40. ^ a b Souther 1992, pp. 229, 231.
  41. ^ a b c Souther 1992, p. 231.
  42. ^ Souther 1992, pp. 26, 182.
  43. ^ Souther 1992, pp. 214, 231.
  44. ^ Souther 1992, p. 232.
  45. ^ "Kena Cone (SLF-9)". Catalogue of Canadian volcanoes. Natural Resources Canada. 2009-03-10. Archived from the original on 2011-07-06. Retrieved 2023-02-19.
  46. ^ "Keda Cone". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2021-10-20. Retrieved 2023-08-19.
  47. ^ Souther 1992, pp. 214, 233.
  48. ^ Souther 1992, p. 233.
  49. ^ Souther 1992, pp. 28, 32, 236.
  50. ^ Souther 1992, pp. 27, 28, 236.
  51. ^ Souther 1992, pp. 28, 236.
  52. ^ a b Souther 1992, p. 236.
  53. ^ Souther 1992, p. 237.
  54. ^ a b Souther 1992, pp. 234, 235.
  55. ^ Souther 1992, p. 226.
  56. ^ Souther 1992, pp. 214, 224, 225.
  57. ^ Souther 1992, pp. 224, 225.
  58. ^ Spooner, Ian S.; Osborn, Gerald D.; Barendregt, R.; Irving, E. (1996). "A Middle Pleistocene (isotope stage 10) glacial sequence in the Stikine River valley, British Columbia" (PDF). Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences. 33. NRC Research Press: 1429. Retrieved 2024-03-08.
  59. ^ Souther 1992, pp. 214, 235.
  60. ^ Souther 1992, pp. 26, 235.
  61. ^ a b Logan, J. M.; Drobe, J. R. (1993). Geology and Mineral Occurrences of the Mess Lake Area (104G/7W) (PDF) (Report). Geological Fieldwork 1992, Paper 1993-1. British Columbia Geological Survey. p. 141. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-03-22. Retrieved 2024-03-03.
  62. ^ Souther 1992, pp. 214, 236.
  63. ^ Telegraph Creek, Cassiar Land District, British Columbia (Topographic map) (3 ed.). 1:250,000. A502 (in English and French). Department of Energy, Mines and Resources. 1989. Archived from the original on 2021-05-02. Retrieved 2024-03-07.

Sources[edit]

Further reading[edit]

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